Central America hosts a diverse, unique, and imperiled amphibian fauna, and for decades Central America been a major epicenter of research into amphibian decline and conservation. In this critical and quantitative review, we synthesize current knowledge regarding amphibian decline and conservation in the seven countries that constitute Central America. There are 495 currently recognized amphibian species known from the region, distributed among the three extant orders, 16 families, and 69 genera—though description of new species continues to occur at a rapid pace. Central America's amphibian fauna is unique: 251 species are restricted to the region, and amphibian diversity varies among the major biogeographic provinces and climatic zones found in Central America. We use data generated by the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) to evaluate trends in extinction risk among Central American amphibians. As of 2014, there are 207 amphibian species considered threatened by the IUCN, and threat status varies according to taxonomic groupings, biogeographical association, elevation, and life history variables. Major threats to Central American amphibians include both conventional threats (habitat modification, habitat fragmentation, overharvesting, and invasive species) as well as emerging threats that operate on large spatial scales (pollution, emerging infectious diseases, UV-B radiation, and climate change). We conducted a quantitative literature review to document conservation research and to show trends in research activity. While the number of published studies on amphibian conservation increases each year, there are pronounced biogeographic biases in the distribution of published research, and most research is conducted by scientists at institutions outside of Central America with limited involvement of host-nation biologists in amphibian research. We synthesize empirical studies of conservation impacts to amphibians in Central America from habitat modification and fragmentation, overharvesting, invasive species, pollution, UV-B radiation, chytridiomycosis and other amphibian pathogens, climate change, and synergistic interactions among these threats. Much research in the past decade has focused on chytridiomycosis and the amphibian chytrid fungus (Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis), with far fewer studies on habitat modification, other amphibian pathogens, or climate change impacts to amphibians. We describe ongoing conservation actions for amphibians in the region, including monitoring, protected areas, captive assurance programs, protection of relict populations, reintroductions, and development of in-country capacity for research and conservation programs. We conclude with a list of priorities in research and conservation action for amphibians in the region.

The cognitive abilities of animals are challenging to assess. Typically, studies on visual discrimination in fishes are conducted in the laboratory neglecting the fact that acclimation of test subjects to the laboratory environment including artificial light conditions may affect the way in which fishes respond to visual stimuli. The aim of this study was to demonstrate that it is possible to train fishes on visual cues using food rewards, while free-roaming in their own territory under natural conditions. An acoustic secondary reinforcer was also included and its potential contribution to the training success was tested. We trained 27 specimens of the benthic triplefin blenny Tripterygion tripteronotum on either a black or white colored target. Training took on average ten days. In 15 binary choice trials, 23 fish discriminated successfully between rewarded target cue (CS ) and the unrewarded cue (CS−). Furthermore, we discuss the usefulness of acoustic secondary reinforcement in this study.

The lateral line canals, canal neuromasts, dermal canal carrying bones and scales, and canal branches of Dorosoma petenense are described and compared with those of clupeids Dorosoma cepedianum, Brevoortia patronus, Brevoortia tyrannus, Caspialosa pontica, Chirocentrus dorab, Clupea harengus, Clupeonella cultriventris, and Sardina pilchardus. The first trunk lateral line canal carrying scale is narrower than the second in Denticeps clupeoides, Dorosoma petenense, Dorosoma cepedianum, and Sardina pilchardus. Although the clupeoid lateral line canal system is complex, information from its branching pattern, with or without information from other systems of the body, could provide significant justification for a fully resolved phylogeny of clupeoids.

Although the timing of amphibians' spring emergence following winter dormancy may vary under the influence of climate change, the behavior of the animals should be more directly a response to the weather and/or other immediate stimuli and may be expected to show some population-level consistencies independent of timing. As such, there should be particular conditions of temperature, precipitation, wind, and/or phase of the lunar cycle at the onset of surface activity in a terrestrially hibernating anuran that may quantitatively differ from prior environmental conditions. Based on 24 years of data from a northern population of Fowler's Toads, we found that the springtime emergence of the toads is associated with increased temperature, relatively little rainfall or wind, and a gibbous moon. This remains true whether the toads emerge relatively early or late in spring. However, the toads' need for warmer temperatures to emerge for the first time in the year appears to significantly decrease the longer they have to wait. After emergence, though, the toads' activity during spring is positively associated with air temperature and negatively associated with wind speed, whereas rainfall and the illumination of the moon are not factors. Thus the environmental conditions necessary to evoke springtime emergence may not necessarily be the same as those that enable the animals' subsequent activity.

Our knowledge of the biology of neonatal snakes has lagged behind that of adult animals, mostly due to the difficulty of finding and studying neonatal snakes in the wild. Traditional approaches view neonatal reptiles as miniature replicates of their adult counterparts. In this contribution, we present data on the natural history of neonatal Green Anacondas from opportunistic captures in the wild over a 17-year period, as well as from a brief study on captive-born radio-tagged individuals. Both approaches converge in presenting a picture of the ecology of neonatal anacondas showing many similarities between their natural history and that of adult anacondas in spite of the great size difference. The neonates' biology resembles that of adults, especially males, in their preference for birds in their diet, the relative prey size they choose, slow growth rates they experience, low feeding frequency, little mobility, and preference for similar habitats of stagnant, shallow water covered by aquatic vegetation. The conventional wisdom that neonatal reptiles are replicates of their adult counterparts seems to be largely on target in Green Anacondas.

Since the discovery of spirit-based preservation, scientists have based innumerable studies of systematics, anatomy, development, biogeography, evolutionary biology, and ecomorphology on fluid specimens held by the world's natural history collections. Though alcohol preservation can alter specimen measurements through dehydration and shrinkage, the magnitude of this problem over decadal timescales has never been estimated. If substantial, long-term preservational effects could compromise studies that depend on the comparability of morphometrics drawn from specimens collected at different times unless the artifacts were explicitly controlled. To evaluate the importance of these potential artifacts, we obtained geometric morphometric data from series of four common fish species collected from the Willamette River drainage over the last 70 years and preserved in the Oregon State Ichthyology Collection in 50% isopropanol after formalin fixation. Most regressions of principal component axes against date of collection revealed no directional trends in specimen morphology, and the two significant regressions lose significance when recent collections from the ecologically distinctive river main stem are excluded. We conclude that specimen shrinkage occurs shortly after preservation and does not exacerbate over time and that much of the observed morphological variation in our sample likely stems from habitat differences among collecting localities. Thus, morphological studies can continue to compare specimens collected over decadal timespans to answer questions about the ecological, evolutionary, and biogeographic causes of morphological variation with minimal concern for major preservational artifacts caused by long-term alcohol storage.

The Pugnose Eel, Simenchelys parasitica (family Synaphobranchidae, subfamily Simenchelyinae), is a deep-water species described as both being a parasite and a scavenger that can bite off large chunks of flesh. Little, however, is known about its cranial morphology, including to what degree its feeding apparatus is modified to allow feeding specializations. We provide a detailed description of the cranial morphology of S. parasitica, comparing it with that of more closely related synaphobranchid species, for which no parasitic behavior has been reported, i.e., Ilyophis brunneus (Ilyophinae) and Synaphobranchus brevidorsalis (Synaphobranchinae). Pugnose Eels have stretchable skin around a small, terminal mouth, as well as teeth with a clear cutting edge, a mouth-closing apparatus equipped with large jaw muscles, a large tongue-like secretory structure, and well-developed hyoid and branchial arches to facilitate the transport of large food items in the buccal cavity. A comparison with other species provides several lines of evidence supporting the hypothesis that Pugnose Eels have a feeding apparatus that is equipped for biting off chunks of flesh from prey (irrespective of whether prey is dead or alive), most likely by using rotational feeding.

Provincial and state parks are often considered to be areas that protect native flora and fauna, but parks are also used for human recreation. We assessed the impacts of human recreation on the spatial ecology and health of Sternotherus odoratus in Massasauga Provincial Park (MPP), Ontario, Canada over two field seasons. Our study site is unique in that MPP has no roads and is accessible only by air or water, thus removing the well-known detrimental effects of roads on the resident turtle populations. Using mark–recapture techniques and radio telemetry, we studied turtles in two replicated site categories: impacted and non-impacted. Impacted sites were areas with human recreational activities (e.g., camping, boating), while non-impacted sites had no designated park use and had minimal use by park visitors. We predicted that turtles would avoid humans and thus have larger home range sizes and greater movements in impacted sites. We also predicted higher mortality and injury rates caused by subsidized predators (predators whose numbers increase in the presence of human garbage such as that found at campsites) and direct encounters with humans in impacted sites. Turtles in impacted sites appeared to avoid campsites but did not have larger annual home ranges or daily movements than turtles in non-impacted sites. Injury and mortality rates did not differ statistically between site categories; however, the data suggested higher occurrences of mortalities at impacted sites, a pattern that warrants additional investigation. Our data imply that populations of S. odoratus in MPP are not severely impacted by relatively low-impact human recreation. Future studies should focus on multiple turtle species in parks to get a clearer, more general, understanding of the impacts of human recreational activities on freshwater turtles.

Population genetic data are an important standard with which to gauge demography and gene flow within and among biodiversity units, and are often gathered on species of conservation concern. Yet an exclusive focus on ‘conservation immediacy' can also have negative consequences. For example, it can shift monitoring efforts away from more abundant and/or widely distributed clades and, by so doing, promote a more myopic approach to conservation and management. A current example concerns North American pitvipers (Viperidae: Crotalinae), within which listed species of Crotalus and Sistrurus receive considerable population genetic attention whereas broadly distributed Agkistrodon is largely overlooked. To address this disparity, we used 22 polymorphic tetra-nucleotide microsatellite loci to explore genetic structure, diversity, and relatedness in a Connecticut population of Copperhead (A. contortrix). Three admixed genetic clusters were identified across five winter dens, with overall and sex-specific relatedness similar among dens and across the population. First- and second-order relationships were identified within the population, then juxtaposed against known den associations. Values for genetic structure, diversity, and effective population size are similar to those reported for populations of North American Crotalus and Sistrurus. However, the study population did not sustain a genetic bottleneck following recent anthropogenic habitat alterations, and this may reflect a potential resilience to environmental change, particularly when compared with North American Crotalus and Sistrurus. Our results underscore the importance of (1) quantifying population-level parameters in non-threatened crotalines so as to broaden and extend our understanding of anthropogenic impacts, and (2) evaluating population genetics in taxa that appear superficially resilient to anthropogenic modifications. The latter may also promote valuable comparative analyses with threatened and endangered taxa.

The Sabine Map Turtle (Graptemys sabinensis) inhabits the Sabine-Neches, Calcasieu, and Mermentau river drainages of southwestern Louisiana and east Texas. Sparse data in the literature mark it as having among the smallest body sizes and smallest clutch sizes among the 14 species of the genus Graptemys. All available data on life history originate from the upper Sabine and upper Calcasieu drainages, which are relatively high-gradient rivers with fast currents and numerous sandbars. Downstream segments of these drainages and the entire Mermentau drainage have almost no gradient, with little perceptible current and no sandbars. We sampled G. sabinensis from the Mermentau River and upper and lower portions of both the Sabine and Calcasieu drainages. We collected data on body size and radiographed gravid females in the lower Calcasieu and Mermentau drainages to examine clutch size and egg width and compared our data to literature records and measurements of museum specimens. Both males (to 104 mm in midline plastron length) and females (to 202 mm) were considerably larger in the Mermentau and lower reaches of the Sabine and Calcasieu drainages than in the upper Sabine and upper Calcasieu drainages (to 92 mm and 176 mm, respectively). Clutch sizes were also significantly larger in the Mermentau and lower Calcasieu (mean 5.3 eggs, range 3–7) compared to previously reported clutch sizes for the upper Sabine and upper Calcasieu drainages (mean 2.3 eggs, range 1–4). Comparison with recent findings for other species of Graptemys indicates that it is typical for populations in faster-current habitats to be smaller in body size, although no previous report has shown the magnitude of differences exhibited by G. sabinensis in the present study. Examination of the allometry of reproductive output complemented previous studies of Graptemys in that both egg width and clutch size were hypoallometrically related to female body size, consistent with the hypothesis of anatomical constraints on egg width. The difference between egg width and pelvic aperture width grew larger as females increased in size, suggesting that anatomical constraints may have applied only to smaller females, leaving egg-size optimization possible in larger females. We could not determine the reason for a significant difference in egg width between the Mermentau and lower Calcasieu after correction for female body size, as pelvic aperture width did not vary between the drainages; however, other potential anatomical constraints on egg width were not measured.

Salamanders possess a bipartite kidney: a caudal portion contains nephrons that primarily function in urine formation (pelvic kidney nephrons) and a cranial portion where nephrons also serve as sperm conduits (genital kidney nephrons). Nephrons of these two kidney regions were examined microscopically in Notophthalmus viridescens. No microstructural differences were observed between the filtration barriers of renal corpuscles from pelvic and genital kidney nephrons. However, pelvic kidney renal corpuscles were significantly larger than genital kidney renal corpuscles and possessed a much more developed, and vascularized, glomerular structure. Furthermore, whereas filtrate was easily observed in the urinary space of pelvic kidney renal corpuscles, the urinary space of genital kidney renal corpuscles did not bind with stains used for examination with transmission electron microscopy. This finding corresponds with the previous lack of filtrate observed in the proximal tubules of genital kidney nephrons in comparison to copious filtrate in pelvic kidney proximal tubules. These results may indicate a lack of urine forming function in the genital kidney nephrons.

Information on the hibernation ecology of Bog Turtles (Glyptemys muhlenbergii) throughout their range is limited. Few studies have identified suitable hibernacula or documented behavior during hibernation including site fidelity, communal hibernation, and entrance and emergence times. Our study presents long-term documentation of hibernation in a relatively understudied portion of the species' range. From fall 2005 to spring 2014, we observed the hibernation of 13 marked turtles in an isolated population located in the southern Appalachian Mountains of North Carolina. During the course of our study, nine turtles were radio-tracked for 1–5 y. Turtles spent about six months in hibernation, usually entering the hibernaculum in late September into October and emerging in mid-April. Using radiotelemetry, we identified 11 hibernacula of three types: root masses of trees/shrubs, root masses of cinnamon ferns (Osmundastrum cinnamomeum), and sedge (Carex stricta) clumps. Site fidelity and communal use were common in our study. Ten turtles located in multiple winters repeated their use of a hibernaculum in at least two of those winters. Twelve turtles hibernated communally in at least one year. No mortality was observed at the hibernacula. Our study demonstrates the importance of root masses with soft deep substrate for survival in long, harsh winter conditions. Bog Turtles spend about half of every year, and therefore half of their lives, in hibernation, making the identification and protection of suitable habitat for hibernation imperative for successful management to ensure the long-term viability of the species.

Pond hydroperiod and predators play a central role in structuring aquatic communities. Because of predicted changes in precipitation and temperature patterns associated with climate change, pond hydroperiods will likely be altered. Reduced hydroperiods can impact amphibian populations by restricting the amount of time available for larval growth and by altering predatory interactions via increased predator densities. We investigated how pond drying and predation singularly and interactively affected growth and survival of Acris blanchardi (Blanchard's Cricket Frogs). We reared recently hatched tadpoles through metamorphosis in outdoor mesocosms using a factorial design incorporating three hydroperiods (fast-drying, slow-drying, or constant) and three larval odonate predator treatments (caged, uncaged, or absent). Caged and uncaged predator treatments were implemented to evaluate both consumptive and non-consumptive effects. There were no differences in survival, time to metamorphosis, or size at metamorphosis in response to drying or predation treatments. Although pond drying rates in this study did not induce measurable responses, it is possible that more extreme conditions could impact metamorphosis. The lack of response to odonate predator presence and cues suggests tadpoles of A. blanchardi may rely on other behavioral and phenotypic defenses, such as the tail spot, to escape predation. Developing a more comprehensive understanding of how A. blanchardi responds to altered hydroperiod, predators, and their potential interactions is important to predict how this species and other amphibians that breed in diverse aquatic habitats may respond to the influence of climate change on aquatic ecosystems.

Vertebrate taxa with entirely unisexual populations are composed of females that reproduce without fertilization and are generally of hybrid origin. At least 23 vertebrate families have unisexual lineages. Within squamate reptiles, >40 uniparental species have been described from five major lineages: acrodont iguanians, Gekkota, Serpentes, Scincomorpha, and Varanidae. Pleurodont iguanians include >1100 species, all of which have gonochoristic reproduction. Here we report the discovery of a new unisexual lizard from the liolaemid genus Liolaemus, a species-rich (∼260 species) clade distributed over most of southern South American. The new species, Liolaemus parthenos, is the only known all-female triploid pleurodont iguanian. The structural chromosome heteromorphisms of the karyotypes support the hypothesis that L. parthenos is the product of a hybrid origin. Based on morphology, the new species is assignable to the L. boulengeri group (sensu Abdala, 2007), and phylogenetic analyses of mitochondrial DNA indicate that L. parthenos is nested within L. darwinii, suggesting that the latter is the maternal ancestor of this species. Additional data are needed to identify the patrilineal ancestor.

External morphometrics were quantified and compared with body size for adults of an Oahu (Hawaii) population of the Bluespine Unicornfish (Naso unicornis). Specimens were obtained by monthly fishery-dependent collections during the period from April 2011 to July 2012. Three apparently size-related, sexually dimorphic traits were measured (cephalic horn length, to the nearest mm; several measures of peduncular keel/spine development, 0.1 mm; caudal fin filament length, mm) using dial calipers and related to fork length (FL, mm) for individuals of each sex. Histological slides of sub-adult and adult gonads were examined microscopically, and sexual identity and gonadal development and maturation were scored using standard criteria. Each of the metrics examined was sexually dimorphic and positively related to FL using simple linear regression. Logistic regression was used to evaluate the relative ability of each metric, or some combination thereof, to predict the sex of an individual fish. Although combinations of two or all three metrics accurately predicted sex, a single metric (peduncle width across the posterior keel) provided the most efficient and accurate (80% [75–84%, 95% CI] successful) predictor of an individual's sexual identity. Thus a single measure can be used to sex fish in the field. The implications of this finding relative to studies of the movement ecology and life history of this ecologically and economically important species are discussed.

Caecieleotris morrisi, new genus and species of sleeper (family Eleotridae), is described from a submerged freshwater cave in a karst region of the northern portion of the State of Oaxaca, Mexico, Río Papaloapan drainage, Gulf of Mexico basin. The new species represents the first cave-adapted sleeper known from the Western Hemisphere and is one of only 13 stygobitic gobiiforms known worldwide, with all others limited in distribution to the Indo-Pacific region. The new taxon represents a third independent evolution of a hypogean lifestyle in sleepers, the others being two species of Oxyeleotris (O. caeca and O. colasi) from New Guinea and a single species, Bostrychus microphthalmus, from Sulawesi. Caecieleotris morrisi, new species, is distinguished from epigean eleotrids of the Western Atlantic in lacking functional eyes and body pigmentation, as well as having other troglomorphic features. It shares convergent aspects of morphology with cave-dwelling species of Oxyeleotris and B. microphthalmus but differs from those taxa in lacking cephalic pores and head squamation, among other characters. Description of C. morrisi, new species, brings the total number of eleotrid species known from Mexico to 12. Seven of these, including the new species, occur on the Atlantic Slope.

Vertebrate mating strategies and life history patterns show great variation within and among species. Variation in reproductive tactics results from a combination of phylogenetic and environmental factors, and detailed natural and life history data among taxa are required to provide a comparative perspective or to infer evolutionary forces. Collection of such data in secretive species can often only be accomplished through long-term monitoring or the use of molecular tools. We used a combination of monitoring via radiotelemetry and microsatellite DNA markers to describe the reproductive ecology of a population of Timber Rattlesnakes, Crotalus horridus, in northwestern Arkansas. Female C. horridus in northwestern Arkansas were smaller at maturity and produce small litters compared to most estimates for other populations. Female snout–vent length and not the body condition of preparturient females was positively related to litter size and total litter mass. Both pregnant females and females found in association with males during the late-summer mating season were in better body condition compared to the general female population, suggesting an energetic component is involved in both female attractiveness and reproduction. Behavioral monitoring of radiotagged females showed that 15% of females engaging in association with a male went on to associate with additional males during that year. At least 44% of females found in association with males did not produce a litter the following year, indicating that females will associate with males (or vice versa) even with little chance of producing a litter the subsequent year. Genetic analysis of eight microsatellite markers confirmed multiple paternity in three of the seven litters analyzed. Males also associated with multiple females in a single mating season. Therefore, the mating system of C. horridus in northwestern Arkansas could probably be best described as polygynandrous.

This study describes the teeth, dentition, and tooth replacement pattern of the Gulper Shark, Centrophorus granulosus, using histology and micro-CT scanning. Tooth microstructure and the orthodont histotype of C. granulosus are described and illustrated, and tooth morphology is discussed in the context of squaliform phylogenetic studies. Dental characters previously used to study squaliform interrelationships need revision. The dentitions of adult and near-term pups are documented to illustrate ontogenetic changes in tooth morphology as well as the pattern of tooth replacement. Based on the positions of replacement teeth in each tooth file, the replacement pattern of the palatoquadrate dentition is best described as phased sinusoidal replacement. This study also documents the monognathic and dignathic heterodonty of pups and adults, confirming previously published descriptions of heterodonty that have proven to be of taxonomic significance. A revised dental formula is provided that better reflects the tooth morphologies of the species.

The Bluntnose spiny dogfish Squalus acutipinnis Regan, 1908 is redescribed based on the re-examination of its type specimens and non-type material from Southern Africa. The taxonomic confusion concerning its validity is mainly related to its heterogeneous type series. Its taxonomic status is clarified as a valid species endemic to the Southwestern Indian Ocean when compared to congeners from the region and other valid species with which it has been placed in synonymy. Squalus acutipinnis can be distinguished from all species of the “megalops-cubensis group” by fewer total, precaudal, and monospondylous vertebrae (except from Squalus megalops, Squalus brevirostris, and Squalus crassispinus). Squalus acutipinnis is clearly distinct from Squalus megalops from Southern Australia and the Japanese S. brevirostris through characters of pectoral fin and external measurements. The South African species differs from S. crassispinus by having more slender first and second dorsal-fin spines. Squalus acutipinnis is also easily distinguished from the regional congeners S. acanthias, S. blainvillei, and S. mitsukurii by having lanceolate dermal denticles (vs. non-lanceolate unicuspid denticles in S. acanthias, and non-lanceolate tricuspid denticles in S. blainvillei and S. mitsukurii).

The genus Rhoadsia is endemic to western Ecuador and northern Peru and includes two described species that differ in body form, size, and the elevations at which they occur. Unfortunately, there is uncertainty about the number of species that should be recognized in the genus and the causes of the morphological variation documented within and between species. We take advantage of a survey of the fish fauna of the Santa Rosa River in southwestern Ecuador that yielded large numbers of Rhoadsia altipinna, to expand knowledge of the ecological, morphological, and genetic variation of this species. Specimens were collected at five sites at elevations between 31 and 613 m above sea level, and each site was sampled in December 2012 and July 2013. Rhoadsia altipinna was the second most abundant species in the Santa Rosa River, was one of only three species collected at all elevations, and was more common in pool mesohabitats than riffle mesohabitats. Geometric morphometric analysis of body shape variation indicated strong sexual dimorphism and allometry, with body depth increasing substantially with size. More interestingly, body depth declined with elevation in the Santa Rosa River. This intraspecific pattern of variation mirrored the interspecific divergence reported between the two recognized species. Lower elevation R. altipinna are known to be deeper bodied than high elevation R. minor. However, specimens of R. minor from the paratype series measured for comparison were still more streamlined than all Santa Rosa R. altipinna examined, including those collected at the highest elevations and juveniles. Although body shape differed significantly between Santa Rosa River R. altipinna and other populations from southwestern Ecuador, the geographic differences appeared small relative to variation attributable to sexual dimorphism and allometry. Finally, sequencing of a fragment of the cytochrome oxidase I gene for samples from the Santa Rosa River and two samples from the neighboring Guayas River drainage failed to recover a monophyletic Santa Rosa lineage. Although haplotype frequencies differed significantly between the Santa Rosa and Guayas River samples, the lack of monophyly and similarity among the haplotypes make the genetic data more consistent with divergence of geographically isolated populations within a single species than with interspecific divergence. Further analysis of morphological and genetic variation throughout the range of the genus will help elucidate its ecological and evolutionary dynamics.

Urban development is known to alter the structure, chemistry, and biota associated with stream systems; however, little is known about the dynamics of anurans that breed in and around streams. We used automated devices to record breeding anurans for one year across a forested gradient in an effort to identify species-specific sensitivities to urbanization. Six of 13 total species found during the study were present in surveyed streams that were representative of a gradient ranging from heavily urbanized to largely forested, and maximum species richness occurred in watersheds with rapid urban development but low values of impervious surfaces such as pavement and roof tops. The best landscape-scale predictor of assemblage metrics such as species richness, total species activity, and species diversity was generally percent forest cover at the watershed scale (or in very large buffers around the sample point). We used Bayesian inference to estimate detection probability and occupancy for 11 species. While detection probability varied across sampling occasions, there was no evidence that occupancy was a function of forest loss for any species. Urban streams and riparian areas are often severely altered when compared to similar habitats in forested areas. Anuran richness and diversity from urban areas was not altered to the same extent as caudates, which have been sampled from these same streams in previous studies. Increased vagility of anurans, coupled with different breeding strategies, may help to explain this discrepancy.

A new species of Squatina, S. david, is described from the Colombian Caribbean. The new species differs from all the western North Atlantic angel sharks by lacking a mid-dorsal line of thorns or enlarged dermal denticles, by having an eye-spiracle distance larger than 1.5 times eye diameter, and each nasal flap with two rod-like barbels. Coloration is grayish to brownish yellow, males are dark-spotted, females have abundant whitish spots. Squatina david is nested within the American clade of angel sharks, being the sister species to the Brazilian species.

While it has traditionally been viewed that high androgens are a hindrance to male parental care, recent studies in several vertebrate taxa have shown the opposite pattern, where high androgens either co-occur with, or are necessary for high parental investment. These inconsistencies suggest that in order to develop a complete understanding of the role sex steroids play in parental care, it is important to study multiple species with varying life-history characteristics. Anemonefishes of the genus Amphiprion provide a useful complement to more classically studied systems within vertebrate, and more specifically teleost models of parental care. Therefore, parental behaviors and blood plasma levels of 11-ketotestosterone (11-KT), estradiol (E2), and cortisol were measured in five breeding pairs at three points in the spawning cycle. Males displayed 5.6-fold more parental behaviors and spent 67% of their time in the nest as compared to 12% in females, along with significantly higher levels of 11-KT (males = 0.75±0.076; females = 0.02±0.005 ng/ml). Alternatively, females displayed higher levels of E2 (males = 0.09±0.009; females = 3.65±0.655 ng/ml), and E2 fluctuated across the breeding cycle with low levels on the day eggs were laid and higher levels as eggs developed. Cortisol tended to be higher in males, and higher in breeders than non-breeders, though these differences were not significant (males = 35.8±11.01; females = 16.9±3.58 ng/ml). Results suggest A. ocellaris may be a useful model for studying paternal behavior in the presence of high androgens.

The role of women in the American Society of Ichthyologists and Herpetologists has evolved during the past 100 years. In the early years of the Society, the role of women was largely limited to assisting men in research and administration. One exceptional woman was Helen Thompson Gaige, a herpetologist at the University of Michigan, who served as Editor-in-Chief of Copeia for most of the period from 1937 to 1950. Women have become more visible and engaged in all aspects of the Society only during the past few decades. Of note, the first woman President, Marvalee Wake, was not elected until 1982, and since then, just five more women, three herpetologists and two ichthyologists, have been elected to that Society leadership position. We offer comments from our own experiences to show how our engagement with the Society has influenced our careers.

Richard H. Rosenblatt, long-time member of ASIH and professor at Scripps Institution of Oceanography, passed away on 30 October 2014. During his more than five decades at Scripps, he produced 33 doctoral students and more than 90 ichthyological publications.