Bursera glabrifolia, a dominant component of the tropical dry forests in southwestern Mexico, is used to illustrate the importance of a broader contextual framework for ethnobotanical studies. The species is currently used as a carving wood to produce small, painted figurines known as alebrijes. Over the past hundred years, however, B. glabrifolia also has been exploited commercially for resin and essential oil, and over-harvesting has pushed the species to the brink of local extinction several times. The destruction of tropical dry forests threatens the ability of the species to recover from the current wave of exploitation. Eight years of study have highlighted two major aspects of the life and times of B. glabrifolia. First, the ethnobotany of the species is extremely complex and, in addition to local artisans and collectors, involves pre-Columbian tributes, resource substitution, NAFTA duty exemptions, and the spread of cattle pastures. Second, a concerted effort to manage the species in its natural habitat would bolster the thriving alebrije market and provide a much-needed incentive for conserving tropical dry forests in Mexico.

This study was carried out in the regions where handcrafts such as carpet and rug weaving are common in Turkey. In the regions where natural dyes are used, 123 plant species belonging to 50 families were identified as sources of natural dyes. In natural dye production, different parts of the plant or the whole aboveground plant is used. Ten different colors are gained from the plants. Sometimes the same color can be obtained from different plants. By mixing different plants, it is possible to produce various colors. We also identified more than 12 natural and more than eight chemical assistant substances (mordant) that are used in the regions to bind dye to fibers, to maintain the strongness and brightness of the colors, and to obtain various colors.

Dye plants that are commonly used by the regional people of East Anatolia were studied. The following information was collected: local name of plants, the part of plants containing dye, obtained color, dying substances, and extraction of colors. As a result of area investigations carried out between 1994 and 2000, 50 taxa (used for dying wool yarns in the region) belonging to 38 genera and 26 families were determined from collected specimens.

By using the dying plants and mediator substances, 15 different colors and tones can be obtained. The main colors are yellow, green, olive green, black, red, blue, dark blue, brown, gray, beige, orange, khaki, mustard, purple, and smoke. The colors and their many different tones were observed on kilims and carpets that are woven in the East Anatolia region of Turkey.

Chusquea ramosissima is called “the beetle's knife” by a Guaraní community. In this research, the use of this cane as a spike and a cutting element, as well as its relationship with certain beetles, is discussed. This relationship is the basis of a story that explains the origin of these species and other entities from the Guaraní point of view.

The phenology of vegetative and reproductive patterns, shoot growth, and the physiological and anatomical plasticity of leaves of ciruela mexicana (Spondias purpurea L.) exposed to different ranges of light are described. Flower and fruit production occur during the dry season. Shoot elongation occurs during late spring and summer. Growth rates of S. purpurea are similar to the rates reported for fast growing plants, when growing on rocky slopes in shallow infertile soils. Leaves exposed to the highest photosynthetic photon flux (PPF) had a thicker mesophyll than leaves that developed under the shade. Midday depression of photosynthesis was observed for S. purpurea. The reduction in the rates of net CO₂ uptake was related to high temperatures, high PPF, and increased leaf starch content. Plasticity in physiological and anatomical traits as observed in S. purpurea may be advantageous in the low-resource rocky environments where it grows.

Oleoresin extracted from copaíba (Copaifera spp.: Leguminosae) trees is a popular traditional medicine in Amazônia. I studied production ecology from three copaíba types in the eastern Brazilian Amazon. Mean oleoresin yield from the first harvest was 0.07 liters per tree for all trees drilled and 0.23 liters per tree for ones yielding some oleoresin. Yields were comparable to C. multijuga results in central Amazônia but lower than anecdotal reports of 2 liters or more per tree. Yield differences were minor between tree types and seasons. Yield peaked in mid-size trees (45–65 cm DBH) while small (<45 cm DBH), very large (>65 cm DBH), and hollow trees (due to senescence or fire) yielded negligible amounts. Oleoresin was harvested almost exclusively from inner heartwood, indicating that factors stimulating its synthesis in cambium are probably distinct from factors that promote its storage in heartwood and loss of yield many years later.

The circumstances concerning the diffusion of the main cultivated citrus from their places of origin in Asia are studied here, showing that the citron (Citrus medica L.) was the only one knew in Ancient times in Europe, while the lemon (C. limon [L.] Osbeck), lime (C. aurantiifolia [Christm.] Swingle), pomelo (C. maxima [Burm.] Merr.) and sour orange (C. × aurantium L.) were introduced to Europe by the Muslims via the Iberian Peninsula and Sicily, and that the grapefruit (C. paradisi Macfad.), mandarin (C. reticulata Blanco) and sweet orange (C. × aurantium L.) arrived to the West between the fifteenth and nineteenth centuries as a result of the trade with the British and Portuguese colonies.

Capers of commerce are immature flower buds which have been pickled either in vinegar or preserved in granular salt. Semi-mature fruits and young shoots with small leaves may also be pickled for use as a condiment. The use of capers can be traced to the prehistory. Although Capparis spinosa from the western Mediterranean is the most widely used species, the subgenus comprises 23 species and subspecies occupying large territories from the Atlantic coasts to the Pacific in the Old World. We have recorded medicinal and food uses for 19 species.

Tagetes minuta L., syn. T. glandulifera Schrank grows wild in western Himalaya and is one of the important source of essential oils. The crop has been domesticated by our Institute not only in sub-temperate but also in subtropical zones and farmers have opted Tagetes minuta as an essential oil crop in their cropping system. Four cropping systems have been evolved based on variable sowing and harvesting times yielding varying quality of essential oil. All the four crop practices can be practised in sub-temperate regions while one crop practice is recommended for subtropical regions. Tagetes oil contains three major constituents of monoterpene ketones namely ocimenones E&Z, tagetones E&Z and dihydrotagetone and a hydrocarbon ocimene which are important base materials for synthesizing new aroma molecules. Tagetes oil of desired constituents can be produced by adopting selective crop practice based on experimental findings of present investigation. Ocimene rich crop can be harvested in winter (December–January), dihydrotagetone rich crop in autumn (October–November), tagetone rich crop in summer (June) and ocimenone rich crop can be harvested in short duration autumn–winter (December–January) and summer crops.

In most of the western world where industrial hemp, Cannabis sativa, is licensed for cultivation, the plants must not exceed a level of 0.3% tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), the principal intoxicating constituent of the species. Because there are no publicly available germplasm hemp collections in North America and only a very few, recent North American cultivars have been bred, the future breeding of cultivars suitable for North America is heavily dependent on European cultivars and European germplasm collections. Based mostly on material from Europe, this study surveyed THC levels of 167 accessions grown in southern Ontario, making this the largest survey to date of germplasm intended for breeding in North America. Forty-three percent of these had THC levels ≥0.3% and, therefore, are unsuitable for hemp development in North America. Discrepancies were found between THC levels reported for some germplasm holdings in Europe when they were grown in Canada and, accordingly, verification of THC levels developed in North America is necessary.

I studied the uses of the African cherry (Prunus africana) by four ethnic groups who live near the Kilum-Ijim Forest Preserve on Mount Oku, Cameroon. Prunus africana is valued for its timber, which is used for tool handles and for fuel, and it is an important wildlife food. However, its greatest value is for traditional medicines. Healers use the bark and leaves to treat more than 30 human ailments and several animal diseases and it is the most important plant used in their practices. This study is the first to document this importance, particularly for animal medicines. I also examined the growing worldwide herbal use to treat benign prostatic hyperplasia. Market demand has caused resource depletion and an erosion of traditional resource protection practices. Preservation of the species will depend on sustainable harvesting methods and on cultivation.

The essential oil of Chamaebatiaria millefolium from California is dominated by 24.90 ± 4.46% camphor, 17.36 ± 4.23% borneol, 11.17 ± 4.26% camphene, and 10.95 ± 4.59% α-pinene. The essential oil of Chamaebatia australis from California is dominated by no constituent greater than 10% but contains 7.07 ± 0.97% δ-cadinene, 6.84 ± 1.47% terpinen-4-ol, and 5.46 ± 1.50% linalool. The essential oil of Chamaebatia foliolosa from California is dominated by 12.90 ± 3.67% unidentified sesquiterpene alcohol and 15.96 ± 6.61% viridiflorol. No scientific literature exists to substantiate the medicinal claims for “Chamae Rose.” Neither Chamaebatiaria multiflorium nor Chamabatiaria nelleae exist in the scientific literature.

This study documents 354 species of wild edible plants consumed in southern Ecuador, an area with a very high species diversity. Southern Ecuador is inhabited by Mestizo farmers and by small communities of indigenous Shuar and Saraguros. The majority (85%) of the 354 species have edible fruits. Various regional food and drink preparations in which wild plants are used are described. Most (86%), however, are consumed raw. Thirty-eight percent have additional uses, primarily as fuelwood and timber. The fruits or other edible parts of 21 species are sold at local and regional markets. Three new species were discovered during this study.

Salvia hispanica L., was an important staple Mesoamerican food and medicinal plant in pre-Columbian times. Unlike other Mesoamerican pseudocereal crops such as Amaranthus and Chenopodium, it has received comparatively little research attention. An ethnobotanical review of this Mesoamerican crop plant Salvia hispanica has been undertaken to examine changes in use accompanying Spanish colonization. A comparative analysis of accounts of use from the 16th century codices of Mexico and subsequent publications has revealed subtle changes in medicinal, culinary, artistic, and religious uses. Several hypotheses surrounding changes in use through time and the original use(s) that led to domestication are developed and tested through collection of ethnobotanical data in the highlands of western Mexico and Guatemala. A general decline in ethnobotanical knowledge associated with wild populations coupled with a loss of habitat in some locations has degraded important germplasm and knowledge resources for a species with great economic potential.

The communities of Tsehlanyane and Bokong depend on subsistence agriculture and harvesting natural resources for a variety of needs, mainly firewood, handcrafts, medicine, food, construction, and socio-cultural amenities. They have done so since time immemorial and are singularly responsible for the good conservation value that the area represents. The area has the longest history of conservation championed by a local traditional authority in Lesotho. From December 1999 to March 2000 we conducted a survey that was aimed at making an inventory of resources, on which people rely, that will be affected by the establishment of a biosphere reserve linking the Tsehlanyane National Park and the Bokong Nature Reserve. In the survey, 149 households were sampled representing a sampling intensity of 19% in both communities. One hundred forty-seven species of plants were mentioned, falling into 51 families with the most commonly used families being Asteraceae, Liliaceae sens. lat. and Poaceae. The study also revealed that tenurial rights on these resources are communal and usufructuary and are increasingly being undermined by commercialization that relegate resources to an open access system. The study identified six main use categories, namely, firewood, handcrafts, medicinals, wild fruits, wild vegetables, and miscellaneous uses. Finally, the study demonstrated that ethnobotanical knowledge is widely held in Lesotho with the traditional doctors being the major repositories.