Host-plant phenology can directly and indirectly mediate the abundance of insect herbivores. Our objective was to determine how host-plant flowering phenology shapes a facultative ant–lycaenid mutualism.The focus of our research was the hops azure, Celastrina humulus Scott & D. Wright, a rare species whose larvae feed on the pollen-bearing inflorescences of Humulus lupulus var. neomexicanus. We used several approaches to evaluate the role of host-plant flowering phenology in this system. First, we monitored larvae over three study years (2020–2022) to parse the role of host-plant flowering phenology and other factors in shaping the likelihood of ant tending. Second, we tested larval performance at various phenological stages of the host plant. We also quantified variation in soluble proteins and secondary metabolites among inflorescences at varying phenological stages. Lastly, we treated artificial sugar–protein baits with extracts from different phenological stages of the host plant; this allowed us to assess how chemical variation among stages could impact ant recruitment. Monitoring results revealed that the likelihood of ant tending was lowest for larvae on host plants with early-stage inflorescences. These floral stages had the greatest concentrations of both soluble proteins and α-acids (humulone and cohumulone), and in the feeding trial, early-stage flowers enabled greater weight gain for larvae. However, extracts from early-stage flowers reduced ant recruitment to sugar–protein baits. Altogether, these results suggest that early-stage inflorescences enhance larval growth while also reducing the recruitment of mutualist ants.This shows an indirect mechanism whereby changing host-plant phenology can mediate herbivore populations through interactions with ants.

Graphical Abstract