Natural-history studies represent the observational stage of the scientific method, and the single greatest discovery in biological sciences, evolution by natural selection, was based largely on a vast amount of natural-history information collected by Charles Darwin. I briefly review natural-history observations that I have made during my career that led to discoveries in life-history theory, placentation in New World Mabuya that rivals that of eutherian mammals, social behavior in the North American clade of five-lined skinks, and the relationship of ecological traits of lizards globally to their evolutionary history (phylogeny). Gifted collaborators provided the intellectual interplay that led to these discoveries, and they certainly deserve as much credit as I do. I briefly comment on what I consider to be frontiers in herpetology that involve combining phylogenetic hypotheses with natural-history data. In a final comment, I encourage those among us who are able to spend extended time periods in the field to collect as much natural-history data as possible, because these data describe reality, and, as theories and phylogenies evolve, the kinds of basic data that led to Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection can be applied again and again.

In amphibians, as in other vertebrates, exposure to stressors triggers an increase in plasma glucocorticoids. Glucocorticoids are believed to mediate behavioral transitions critical to coping with stressors. A common amphibian behavioral response to a variety of different stressors is inactivity. With a series of experiments, we tested the hypothesis that stress-induced decreases in locomotory activity are mediated by the glucocorticoid hormone, corticosterone (CORT). With the use of a plethodontid salamander (Red-legged Salamander, Plethodon shermani), we demonstrated that handling, a stressor, resulted in decreased locomotory activity. Next, subjects were treated with a dermal patch containing either oil vehicle or CORT. The amount of CORT used was chosen to elevate plasma CORT acutely to physiologically relevant levels relative to treatment with oil patches. Activity was measured in response to different amounts of CORT, at different times after CORT exposure, and in the presence of different chemosensory cues. One experiment also included treatment with the glucocorticoid receptor blocker, mifepristone. Although handling resulted in reduced activity, we could discern no effect of acute elevations of CORT on activity. These results suggest that acute stress-induced changes in locomotory activity are not mediated by CORT in Red-legged Salamanders.

Terrestrial plethodontid salamanders are abundant predators within the forest floor litter of eastern North America, and are hypothesized to regulate soil and litter invertebrate density and species composition. I tested this hypothesis during a 6-yr study of the effects of the Eastern Red-backed Salamander (Plethodon cinereus) on the invertebrate community of a forest site in northeast Ohio. Salamander surface density, invertebrate abundance, and community composition were monitored within 30 open, circular plots. Variation in plot occupancy by P. cinereus was achieved by supplying plots with differing amounts of artificial cover (0, 1, or 4 ceramic tiles) that served as refuges for the salamanders. Salamander plot occupancy, invertebrate density, leaf litter mass, and leaf litter moisture were quantified each spring and fall from 2003 through 2008. Statistically significant effects of salamander plot-occupancy on invertebrate densities were found for several taxa of mesofauna, including several Collembola taxa, oribatid mites, pseudoscorpions, and psocoptera. The strength and direction of salamander effects varied among taxa and included negative, positive, and no effects on invertebrate densities. The magnitude and sign of salamander effects on invertebrate densities were predicted by seasonal and interannual variation in leaf litter mass and, to a lesser extent, litter moisture content. Salamander effects decreased with increasing litter mass and were more often negative when litter mass was high, whereas positive effects on invertebrate densities were more likely when litter mass was low. For several taxa, the positive effect of P. cinereus also increased with litter moisture. I propose two mechanistic hypotheses for these dynamics that integrate behavioral ecology of salamander prey selection and territorial defense with variation in litter mass and litter moisture.

Based on 2431 captures of 757 individual frogs over a 9-yr period, we found that the population of R. sierrae in one meadow–stream complex in Yosemite National Park ranged from an estimated 45 to 115 adult frogs. Rana sierrae at our relatively low elevation site (2200 m) grew at a fast rate (K = 0.73–0.78), had high overwintering survival rates (44.6–95%), lived a long time (up to 16 yr), and tended to be fairly sedentary during the summer (100% minimum convex polygon annual home ranges of 139 m²) but had low year-to-year site fidelity. Even though the amphibian chytrid fungus (Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis, Bd) has been present in the population for at least 13 yr, there was no clear downward trend as might be expected from reports of R. sierrae population declines associated with Bd or from reports of widespread population decline of R. sierrae throughout its range.

We provide novel data on the biology of Proceratophrys melanopogon and describe its larval external morphology and internal oral features on the basis of specimens from the Serra do Mar, southeastern Brazil. We also review the larval internal oral features of the genus, including descriptions and comparisons with P. cururu and P. moratoi. The external morphology of tadpoles of P. melanopogon is very similar to that of closely related species. The internal oral features are very conserved in this genus, with the majority of species having lingual papillae unusually bifurcated, four infralabial papillae, and a transverse ridge on the prenarial arena. Our results also provide data for phylogenetic studies on the genus Proceratophrys.

Here we describe a new species of the Ischnocnema parva species series from the Parque Estadual do Desengano, in the northern part of the State of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. We use morphology and mtDNA sequences to allocate the new species into the I. parva species series. The new species is closely related to I. parva genetically and morphologically, from which it is diagnosable by (1) the presence of a well-developed calcar tubercle, (2) a reduced Toe I, (3) a deep V-shaped median slit on the dorsal surface of toe discs, and (4) externally indistinct tympanum and tympanic annulus.

Populations of Wood Turtles, Glyptemys insculpta, have steadily decreased over the past 30 yr because of habitat destruction and degradation. We sampled Wood Turtles from three areas in Michigan, USA, to characterize populations, quantify demographic trends, and measure the effect of declining population size on genetic diversity. Wood Turtle samples (n = 68) were collected from three rivers in the Lower Peninsula of Michigan and analyzed at nine microsatellite loci. Bayesian clustering programs identified two populations that split the three sampling sites into North and South populations. In both populations, analysis of genealogies estimated r < 0, indicating population decline. However, no evidence of a bottleneck was detected (P = 0.30 North, P = 0.29 South), and little evidence of inbreeding was observed (average North F_IS = 0.25, average South F_IS = 0.23), relative to other Emydidae populations. The high genetic diversity observed in the North and South populations is likely due to immigration between the two populations (F_ST = 0.04), coupled with the long life span of the Wood Turtle. The conflicting signals suggested from the genealogy models compared to the F_IS and bottleneck analysis suggests that coalescent models may be better suited to detect population decline than other measures of genetic diversity in long-lived species such as the Wood Turtle.

The Nactus pelagicus complex consists of a unisexual lineage, N. pelagicus, as well as several genetically distinct bisexual lineages. The unisexual and bisexual lineages are rarely sympatric but do co-occur on two islands in southern Vanuatu. Nactus pelagicus and the bisexual N. multicarinatus co-occur on Aneityum and Tanna Islands, although the distribution of N. multicarinatus may be limited on Aneityum and may be limited to a single locality (Port Resolution) on the eastern coast of Tanna. Previous analyses suggested that these species have different chin scalation patterns. However, species identifications were assigned solely on presence or absence of males from localities. Moreover, because these species occupy different regions, morphological analyses can be confounded by interisland variation. To evaluate whether chin scalation patterns differ consistently between N. pelagicus and N. multicarinatus as previously suggested, we used molecular sequence data to delimit species from nine populations on a single island in Vanuatu. All N. multicarinatus examined had a single chin scalation pattern whereas variation in this trait was observed in N. pelagicus; there was no overlap in this trait between the species. We hypothesize that the variation in this trait in the unisexual species N. pelagicus could result from developmental instability as a result of perturbations during development caused by incompatibility between the two parental genomes that contributed to the formation of this unisexual lineage.

A new species of the genus Goniurosaurus is described from Libo County, Guizhou Province and Huanjiang County, Guangxi, China. Goniurosaurus liboensis sp. n. can be discriminated from other known congeners by its medium size, with adults measuring 103.2–110.3 mm snout–vent length; 23 precloacal pores in males; a posteriorly protracted nuchal loop six or seven scale rows in width; two or three internasals, eight or nine nasal scales surrounding nares; a greatly enlarged row of supraorbital tubercles; the granular scales of upper eyelids nearly equal in size as those on the top of head; deep axillary pockets; claws sheathed by four scales; chin, throat, thorax, and ventral surfaces of body and limbs white, immaculate; and three thin immaculate dorsal body bands between limb insertions. Natural history data and an expanded key to the genus Goniurosaurus are provided.

The Lesser Antilles is a biodiversity hot spot but unfortunately human disturbance has taken its toll, causing dramatic population declines and even extinction of numerous endemic species. Nevertheless, today the rediscovery of previously thought extinct species is not uncommon. Often, old museum specimens and their original descriptions are the only information available for such species. The application of molecular phylogenetic relationships to extant species can help to elucidate pivotal information on their ecology and conservation. Erythrolamprus cursor is possibly an extinct colubrid racer from Martinique, currently classified as critically endangered on the International Union for Conservation of Nature Red List. Mitochondrial deoxyribonucleic acid sequences were obtained from four E. cursor specimens from the Muséum national d'Histoire naturelle (Paris) collections. All sequences recovered the same haplotype and the level of divergence between E. cursor and E. juliae, from the nearby island of Dominica, was lower than between other intraspecific distances within other Erythrolamprus. Furthermore, phylogenetic analyses confirm that these two species are sister taxa and share most recent common ancestry. We discuss that published ecological data available for the sister species (E. juliae) may help to elucidate information on this species' natural history, ultimately having important implications for a future conservation management program if E. cursor is to be found. We emphasize the urgent need to conduct an exhaustive survey on the supposed last population of E. cursor at Diamond Rock to establish the survival of this species there, to understand how it may have adapted to such an ecosystem, especially in sympatry of several introduced rodent species.

A herpetofaunal inventory and distribution study was conducted at the Inhotim Institute in Brumadinho Municipality (State of Minas Gerais, Southeastern Brazil). The Inhotim Institute is located in a transition area between the Atlantic Forest and Cerrado biomes, and the study site encompasses natural forest fragments (secondary forest) and landscaped areas with buildings and gardens representing human occupancy. Comparison between these habitats provides a test as to whether human habitats designed to be interwoven with small tracts of wild habitat are sufficient to maintain a broad array of native species, as proposed in the concept known as “reconciliation ecology.” We conducted field work during 7 d per month from January 2008 to January 2009, except for December 2008. We used pitfall traps with drift fences, visual and auditory surveys, and random records and capture by persons not directly involved in the study in both forest and anthropogenic habitats. We recorded 65 species which included 32 amphibians and 33 reptiles. Three anurans and one lizard were introduced species (probably from the transport of plants from other states for landscaping) and were excluded from our analyses. Most species recorded have a wide geographic distribution and generalist habits. Herpetofaunal species richness was greater in anthropogenic areas, possibly due to the generalist habits of most species and because such areas have a greater availability of suitable breeding habitats for amphibians. The sampling methods used proved to be complementary, with no single method capturing all species. The number of species recorded was high compared to other Brazilian sites, suggesting that the reconciliation ecology approach might be an effective conservation strategy for herpetofauna at the Inhotim Institute.