The European vines pale swallowwort and black swallowwort are invading various habitats in northeastern North America. It is unclear how these plants might respond to potential biological control agents, as they experience little herbivore damage in North America, or longer durations of mowing given the reported lack of efficacy of mechanical control. We evaluated the effect of six seasons of artificial defoliation (50 or 100% defoliation once or twice per season) and clipping (once, twice, or four times at 8 cm above the soil level) on the survival, growth, and reproduction of mature plants of the two species grown in a common garden field experiment. No plants died from damage after 6 yr. Black swallowwort produced more aboveground biomass, whereas pale swallowwort produced more root biomass and root crown buds, compared with its congener species. For most damage treatments, root biomass and the number of crown buds and stems increased over time, whereas aboveground biomass and viable seeds per plant generally did not change. Substantial overlap in plant size and seed production occurred among damage treatments and species. The most severe defoliation treatment did not substantially limit growth and reproduction compared with undamaged plants. While two clippings per season sometimes prevented seed production, four clippings per season was the only type of damage that consistently prevented plant growth and eliminated seed production. Pale and black swallowwort display a high tolerance to aboveground tissue loss in high-light environments without plant competition. The annual increase in plant size calls into question the potential efficacy of a defoliating insect against field populations of swallowworts, and it seems likely the only benefits of a long-term mowing regime will be to eliminate seed production.

Nomenclature:  Black (or Louise's) swallowwort, Vincetoxicum nigrum (L.) Moench, syn. Cynanchum louiseae Kartesz & Gandhi; pale (or European) swallowwort; Vincetoxicum rossicum (Kleopow) Barbarich, syn. Cynanchum rossicum (Kleopow) Borhidi.

Management Implications: Pale swallowwort and black swallowwort are European viney milkweeds that have become invasive in eastern North America since the 1980s. Mechanical control is considered ineffective, but previous studies have only been conducted for 1 or 2 yr. Biological control is also being developed, but it is unclear how these plants might respond to damage such as defoliation over a period of years. We evaluated different artificial defoliation and cutting treatments over 6 yr in a common garden field experiment in Ithaca, NY, for their effect on swallowwort survival, growth, and reproduction. Black swallowwort produced more aboveground biomass, whereas pale swallowwort produced more root biomass and root crown buds, compared with the other species. However, they appeared to respond similarly to damage. No plants died after 6 yr of the different damage treatments, and in general, they increased in size (root biomass, number of crown buds and stems) or did not change (aboveground biomass, seeds per plant) over time. The most severe defoliation treatment (100% twice each year) did not substantially limit growth and reproduction compared with undamaged plants. This result calls into question the potential efficacy of a defoliating insect against field populations of swallowworts. Two clippings per season sometimes prevented seed production and should be considered the minimum frequency of mowing for this purpose. Four clippings per season was the only type of damage that consistently prevented plant growth and eliminated seed production, although it is not clear what the long-term effects of high-frequency mowing will be apart from eliminating seeds. Pale and black swallowwort display a high tolerance to aboveground tissue loss in high-light environments without pl

In instances where vegetation plays a dominant role in the riparian landscape, the type and characteristics of species, particularly a dominant invasive, can alter water velocity at high flows when vegetation is inundated. However, quantifying this resistance in terms of riparian vegetation has largely been ignored or listed as a secondary characteristic on roughness reference tables. We calculated vegetation roughness based on measurements of plant stem stiffness, plant frontal area, stem density, and stem area of three dominant herbaceous plants along the Sprague River, Oregon: the invasive reed canarygrass, native creeping spikerush, and native inflated sedge. Results show slightly lower roughness values than those predicted for vegetation using reference tables. In addition, native creeping spikerush and invasive reed canarygrass exhibit higher roughness values than native inflated sedge, which exhibits values lower than the other two species. These findings are of particular importance where the invasive reed canarygrass is outcompeting native inflated sedge, because with invasive colonization, roughness is increasing in channel zones and therefore is likely changing channel processes. Direct depositional measurements show similar results.

Nomenclature: Reed canarygrass, Phalaris arundinacea L.; creeping spikerush, Eleocharis palustris (L.) Roemer & J.A. Schultes; inflated sedge, Carex vesicaria L.

Management Implications: This study examines the differences in roughness provided by the invasive reed canarygrass (Phalaris arundinacea) and comparable native species occupying stream channel locations along the Sprague River, Oregon. Results here show that the roughness provided by the invasive species is significantly different than the native inflated sedge (Carex vesicaria). In areas where the invasive is outcompeting the native inflated sedge, the increase in roughness provided by the invasive reed canarygrass will likely decrease water velocity when the invasive is inundated during floods. Decreases in water velocity will lead to increased deposition that may change channel form and processes. This is particularly important where channel shape and processes dictate water depth and therefore water temperature. The Sprague River and many other rivers throughout the Pacific Northwest that contain the invasive reed canarygrass could be experiencing changes in channel form. Such changes will alter habitat conditions for at-risk species such as salmon. Along the Sprague River, ongoing restoration and the potential for the reintroduction of salmon with the removal of two dams downstream of the watershed make the effects of this particular species notable. Along other rivers containing the invasive, special attention should be paid to differences in roughness when reed canarygrass is outcompeting native species and establishing monocultures that may eventually dominate the channel banks.

The use of biological control insects is a promising option for suppressing spotted knapweed, a nonindigenous perennial forb that infests more than 3 million hectares of North American rangeland. Efficacy increases when spotted knapweed is attacked by more than one phytophagous insect; however, combined herbivory by biological control insects has not achieved widespread suppression of spotted knapweed in North America. Here we expand the concept of combined herbivory beyond two or more species of biological control insects to include a vertebrate herbivore, specifically targeted grazing by domestic sheep. Our experiment on foothill rangeland in northwestern Montana evaluated spotted knapweed response to three treatments: (1) biological control insects only, (2) biological control insects targeted sheep grazing applied in late July (spotted knapweed in late bud–early flower stage), and (3) biological control insects targeted sheep grazing applied in mid-August (spotted knapweed in full-flower stage). We combined targeted sheep grazing with herbivory by three species of biological control insects: knapweed flower weevil, knapweed root weevil, and sulfur knapweed root moth. Treatments were applied during four consecutive years (2009 to 2012). Spotted knapweed fitness was suppressed more where targeted sheep grazing and biological control insects were combined vs. areas treated with biological control insects alone. Combined herbivory was effective when targeted sheep grazing was applied during either late July or mid-August, but July grazing was more effective. Spotted knapweed produced 96 to 99% fewer viable seeds in sheep-grazed areas. After 4 yr of treatment, total spotted knapweed plant density (seedlings, juvenile, and adult plants) was 86% less in July-grazed areas and 61% less in August-grazed areas than in areas treated with biological control insects alone. Combined herbivory by targeted sheep grazing and biological control insects reduced adult plant density and prevented compensatory recruitment of spotted knapweed, but treatment with biological control insects alone did not.

Nomenclature: Knapweed flower weevil, Larinus spp.; knapweed root weevil, Cyphocleonus achates; sulfur knapweed root moth, Agopeta zoegana; spotted knapweed, Centaurea stoebe L.

Management Implications: Combined herbivory by targeted sheep grazing and biological control insects suppressed spotted knapweed more than biological control insects alone. Drought was not a contributing factor during our study. Sites inhabited by Cyphocleonus, Larinus, or Agapeta can be treated effectively with targeted sheep grazing during either late July (spotted knapweed in the late bud–early flowering stage) or mid-August (spotted knapweed in the full-flowering stage), but July grazing was more effective. After 4 yr of treatment, biological control insects combined with targeted sheep grazing in late July reduced spotted knapweed plant density 86% compared with areas treated with biological control insects alone. Spotted knapweed populations should decrease exponentially wherever weed management can (1) significantly reduce adult plant density and (2) keep spotted knapweed recruitment below the threshold needed to replace adult plants that die. Sheep-grazed areas in our study met both of these criteria, but areas treated with biological control insects alone did not. Combined herbivory by more than one species of biological control insect may be sufficient to suppress spotted knapweed populations in places where few spotted knapweed seedlings establish and transition to adults. However, mammalian herbivory may need to be combined with biological control insects to suppress spotted knapweed in those North American habitats where spotted knapweed seedlings and juvenile plants thrive.

Evaluation of Puccinia crupinae, the causal agent of a rust disease on common crupina (Crupina vulgaris), for biological control is described. Susceptibility of accessions of common crupina that represent both varieties of the target from the five populations in the United States indicate that the disease has potential to control common crupina, but differences were noted between accessions on the basis of pustule count, yield (i.e., number and weight of achenes per plant), and shoot dry weight data after multiple inoculations. One accession from Modoc, CA, was not affected in greenhouse tests and would likely not be affected in the field if a permit to release P. crupinae were granted. None of the nontarget species of 26 taxa from the tribes Cardueae and Cichoriae were symptomatic, so the pathogen is likely safe to use in North America.

Nomenclature: Common crupina, Crupina vulgaris Pers. ex Cass. var. brachypappa P. Beauv.; C. vulgaris var. vulgaris Pers. ex Cass.

Management Implications: Common crupina is an invasive plant of ranges and pastures in the states of California, Idaho, Oregon, and Washington. Because there are no other effective or practical management strategies, focus has been on developing an obligate rust fungus from Greece for biological control. In the United States, there are five distinct populations, representing two varieties of common crupina, var. brachypappa and var. vulgaris, that differ in morphology and in biology. Evaluation of a rust disease, caused by Puccinia crupinae, was made on representatives of each population and both varieties from all infestations of common crupina in the United States. Disease from P. crupinae did not develop in tests of 26 nontarget relatives in the Asteraceae, Tribes Cardueae and Cichoriae. The strain of P. crupinae under evaluation is thus considered host-specific. Data on dew temperature suggest the pathogen will establish and cause disease on common crupina in the field, if permit for release is granted. Also, severe disease developed under greenhouse conditions on all but the accession from Modoc, CA, and measurable damage occurred to at least one accession from Lake Chelan, WA, in multiple inoculation studies. Implications from this suggest that the accession from Modoc, CA, would not be adversely affected in the field by the strain of P. crupinae in this study. The rust disease would likely infect and potentially damage common crupina in the majority of its range in the United States, if released. Results also suggest need for at least one additional strain of P. crupinae, or another candidate biological control agent, to bring pressure on all populations of common crupina in the United States.

Several states in the Midwestern United States are using risk assessment to determine the invasiveness of introduced plant species, and each assessment process is different. This may lead to differences in results for the same species between states, creating concern about credibility by those using the assessments. In this study, risk assessments for six Midwestern states were compared, examining format, content, and assessment committee membership. Case studies were conducted for four species for which at least five of the six states in the study completed a risk assessment; results were compared in the context of general differences in assessment content and those specific to each species. Furthermore, 14 species for which only four of the six states completed assessments were briefly examined for outcome differences only, and possible reasons for these inconsistencies. Overall, differences in assessments did not result in incompatible conclusions for the species compared, suggesting that unique assessments in each state can provide consistent and credible results. We propose that these Midwestern states share species resources with each other to further improve consistency between the assessments.

Nomenclature: cutleaf teasel, Dipsacus laciniatus L.; Japanese barberry, Berberis thunbergii DC.; Amur honeysuckle, Lonicera maackii (Rupr.) Herder;Oriental bittersweet, Celastrus orbiculatus Thunb.

Management Implications: Risk assessments are conducted to measure the invasiveness of introduced plant species. As defined in this paper, Type I assessments are primarily used for education and management and Type II assessments to guide policy. In Indiana, a Type I state, the completed assessments were shared with land managers to help prioritize control efforts and with the nursery and landscape industry to recommend which species should not be sold commercially. Educational brochures sharing the assessment results were widely disseminated from 1996 to 2014, and articles on the assessment results were published in the Indiana Nursery and Landscape Association’s journal. Discussions with land managers indicate that risk assessments did change some management goals, although often site-specific factors weighed more heavily in choosing control goals than the species’ rank (e.g., a medium-risk species present in small quantities may be controlled before a high-risk species present in large quantities). There are no data on the impacts of the risk assessments on commercial sales or spread of invasive plant species in Indiana.

Wisconsin is a Type II state and used its assessments as a tool to recommend regulatory status for each species assessed. Information about the rule and the species to be included was shared widely with stakeholders and the general public before and after the rule went into effect. Although there had been extensive outreach on invasive plants for years, the media and organizations picked up the news of the new regulation and made it available to many more people. The Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources created a field guide to provide identification and control information on all of the regulated plants, and over 35,000 copies have been purchased. Many nurseries and landscapers were aware of the species to be regulated and stopped growing, ordering, or designing with them before the rule went into effect. The public began reporting garden center sales of regulated plants, leading to their removal from their stock. All of these efforts have led to greatly increased prevention of the spread of regulated species. Prohibited plants have become a priority for land managers, with efforts being made to contain and, where possible, eradicate these species at all known locations statewide.

Risk assessments provide a solid foundation for education and for regulation, but do not g

Tropical soda apple is an aggressive prickly perennial shrub growing up to 2 m high. It invades open to semishaded areas, including pastures, forests, riparian zones, roadsides, recreational areas, and horticultural and cropping areas. In Australia during August 2010, the weed was identified on the New South Wales Mid North Coast. It is believed that tropical soda apple has been present in this area for a number of years and both systematic and ad hoc surveys have found the weed in other satellite locations. The discovery of tropical soda apple at several cattle handling facilities indicated that cattle are a significant vector for the weed. The aim of this project was to use the National Livestock Identification System (NLIS) data to trace cattle movements from affected properties throughout New South Wales and into other Australian states. This has proved advantageous, as there are few other nonecological mechanisms to systematically trace significant weed movement. We have been able to conduct a pathway analysis of where this weed is likely to occur across New South Wales through the use of NLIS. Importantly, we can use this information to pinpoint surveillance activities for local managers, thus ensuring better use of resources. We have also been able to create a stochastic model for incursions at these sites using information gleaned from the NLIS data.

Nomenclature: Tropical soda apple, Solanum viarum Dunal.

Invasive species with distributions that encompass much of the North American environment often demand a range of management approaches, for several key reasons. Firstly, the North American environment includes a large number of highly variable habitats in terms of climatic, edaphic, and landscape features. Secondly, these regional habitat differences are accentuated by jurisdictions within Canada and the United States, whereby approaches and available resources differ at local, regional, and national scales. Another important consideration is whether an invasive species or complex also possesses genetic variation. All three of these factors render the knotweed complex in North America a highly variable target for management. In this paper we review existing knowledge of the variable nature of knotweed species (Fallopia japonica (Houtt.) Ronse Decr., Fallopia sachalinensis (F. Schmidt ex Maxim) Ronse Decr., and Fallopia × bohemica, (Chrtek and Chrtková) J. P. Bailey in North America, and evaluate how herbicidal, mechanical and biological control measures must account for this genetic variation, as well as accounting for regional differences and the potential northward expansion of knotweed under climate change. The imminent release of the psyllid, Aphalara itadori Shinji as a biological control agent in North America must also navigate regional and genetic differences. Prior European experience dealing with the three knotweed species should prove useful, but additional research is needed to meet the emerging challenge posed by F. × bohemica in North America, including the possibility of glyphosate resistance. Managers also face challenges associated with posttreatment restoration measures. Furthermore, disparities in resources available to address knotweed management across the continent need to be addressed to contain the rapid spread of this highly persistent and adaptable species. Linking practitioners dealing with knotweed “on the ground” with academic research is a crucial step in the process of marshalling all available resources to reduce the rapidly spreading populations of knotweed.

Nomenclature: Aminopyralid; glyphosate; imazapyr; Aphalara itadori Shinji; Bohemian knotweed, Fallopia × bohemica, (Chrtek and Chrtková) J. P. Bailey; Japanese knotweed, Fallopia japonica (Houtt.) Ronse Decr. (syn. Polygonum cuspidatum Sieb. & Zucc.); Sakhalin or giant knotweed, Fallopia sachalinensis (F. Schmidt ex Maxim) Ronse Descr.

More than 100 years ago, Japanese knotweed was introduced to North America. Given its vigorous rhizome system and capability to grow from rhizome and stem fragments, it persists and spreads locally, forming monotypic stands. The Japanese knotweed clone originally introduced was a male sterile female clone; thus, early in the invasion, reproduction from seed was not an issue. The implication was that long-distance dispersal was relatively rare. However, recently, widespread hybridization between Japanese knotweed and Sakhalin (giant) knotweed has been reported, with the hybrid species, Bohemian knotweed, forming the majority of knotweed plants in many areas and possessing higher variability than the parent species. The hybrids produce large numbers of wind-dispersed viable seeds that germinate at rates approaching 100% in some populations. As temperatures increase, knotweed is predicted to expand its range farther north and to higher elevations. With the ability to regenerate from vegetative fragments and disperse via seeds, invasive knotweed species are on the move. An arsenal of chemical weapons, the ability to shade out competitors, and the ability to adapt rapidly through epigenetic change makes knotweed a formidable invader. We observed that knotweed species clearly possess 8 of the 12 ideal weed characteristics, with Bohemian knotweed likely exhibiting still more because of prolific seed production. More research is needed to answer pressing questions. How does hybridization affect knotweed epigenetics? Under what conditions might seed production become more frequent? What kind of niche expansion is possible with the increased variability? Given the considerable challenges posed by knotweed species that promise to become even greater with the proliferation and spread of Bohemian ecotypes, only a thoroughly researched, well-informed approach to knotweed management across North America can be successful.

Nomenclature: Japanese knotweed, Fallopia japonica (Houtt.) Dcne. syn. Polygonum cuspidatum Sieb. & Zucc.; Sakhalin knotweed, Fallopia sachalinensis (F. Schmidt ex Maxim.) Dcne.; Bohemian knotweed, Fallopia×bohemica Chrtek & Chrtkova.