The Spix's macaw, or little blue macaw (Cyanopsitta spixii), is one of the most critically endangered bird species in the world. In 1990, the Brazilian Nature Conservation Authority established a permanent committee to oversee the captive breeding of about 20 individual Spix's macaws held in various locations throughout the world. Al Wabra Wildlife Preservation (AWWP) successfully bred 10 Spix's macaws in the 2005 and 2006 breeding seasons but intermittent episodes of postfeeding regurgitation in hand-raised chicks prompted the need to better understand and monitor the nutritional and physiologic requirements of growing nestlings. To ascertain and rank the possible causes of regurgitation in chicks, we undertook a critical analysis of the feeding, growth, and health data recorded for each individual hand-raised chick. Factors such as the total daily food intake (TDFI), growth curves, nursery room climate (temperature and humidity), and nutritional requirements were investigated as well as any health issues. Chicks attained a maximum body weight of 375 ± 25 g at 45 days and then gradually lost weight until they reached a weaning weight of 300 ± 30 g. The maximum daily volume of food that each chick received was 101 ± 29 g at 42 days of age, which was also the age at which a peak in postfeeding regurgitation episodes occurred. The TDFI as a percentage of body weight peaked (83.1 ± 12.3%) at day 3 of age and dropped to 30.1 ± 2.3% by day 45 and then to 19.6 ± 1.1% at day 92. Detailed analyses of the 2005 and 2006 records indicate that the regurgitation episodes may be primarily the result of overfeeding during the second trimester of hand-rearing. Our results indicate that smaller meals during the period when chicks are attaining their maximum body weights may contribute to a decrease in the occurrence of regurgitation episodes in hand-reared Spix's macaws.

Voriconazole, a highly potent triazole antifungal agent with high in vitro activity against a wide variety of fungal pathogens, appears to be an option for the treatment of aspergillosis in birds. To gain initial information on pharmacokinetics, bioavailability, and tissue distribution of voriconazole in birds, we evaluated voriconazole in chickens in a 4-part study that analyzed dose linearity, bioavailability, pharmacokinetics, and tissue distribution. Chickens received voriconazole orally and/or intravenously. Blood samples were drawn and analyzed by validated high-pressure liquid chromatography and high-pressure liquid chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry methods. Voriconazole was detectable at low concentrations in plasma up to 6 hours after oral administration, which resulted in a low absolute bioavailability. Concentrations in tissues 12 hours after administration could be quantified up to 7.37 µg/g (liver). No accumulation in tissues could be detected after 30 days of oral treatment with 10 mg/kg voriconazole. Clinical application of voriconazole for the treatment of aspergillosis in birds appears to be promising, because this drug has a high effectiveness and wide tissue distribution, and long-term treatment did not cause clinical signs of adverse effects or organ damage in chickens.

To determine the prevalence of blood parasites with regard to country of origin in a population of falcons kept in the United Arab Emirates (UAE), 432 falcons of 3 different species and 2 hybrid species originating from Asia, Europe, and the United States were examined. Birds were divided into 2 groups. Group 1 comprised 323 birds examined immediately after arrival in the UAE. Blood parasites were detected in 6.8% of birds. Group 2 comprised 109 birds kept longer than 5 months in the UAE; of these, 15.6% were positive for blood parasites. No hybrids (captive bred birds from the United States or Germany) were positive in group 1, whereas 18.2% of the gyrfalcon/saker and 5.9% of the gyrfalcon/peregrine hybrids in group 2 were infected with blood parasites. Wild-caught birds from Asia were positive in both groups. In total, 39 (9%) of the 432 falcons examined were infected with blood parasites. The blood parasites detected were identified as Haemoproteus tinnunculi (5.3%), Haemoproteus brachiatus (0.9%), Leucocytozoon toddi (0.9%), and rickettsia-like parasites (1.9%). This study appears to be the first to investigate the prevalence of blood parasites within the UAE with regard to the origin of the birds. Additionally, it is the first report of H brachiatus in a saker falcon (Falco cherrug). No correlations were found between infection with a blood parasite and clinical disease in the birds in this study.

Paramyxovirus serotype 1 (PMV-1), the etiologic agent of Newcastle disease, is an important cause of morbidity in falcons in the Middle East. To determine whether a commercial, oil-based, inactivated poultry vaccine produces humoral response in falcons, we vaccinated 38 young, unvaccinated gyr-peregrine hybrid falcons (Falco rusticolis × Falco peregrinus) and monitored antibody response for a 45-day period after vaccination. To determine whether immunity is vertically transmitted, we additionally tested the yolks of 15 unfertile eggs of falcons vaccinated 5 months previously. All testing was done by commercial enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for PMV-1 antibody designed for use in poultry. In the vaccinated falcons, serum antibody levels to avian PMV-1 increased by day 14 after vaccination, and titers continued to increase until day 45 when the study ended. Five percent of birds failed to seroconvert. Adult female falcons vaccinated with inactivated vaccine produced eggs with high antibody levels. The inactivated vaccine caused no detectable adverse affects in the gyr-peregrine hybrids.

An adult female hyacinth macaw (Anodorhynchus hyacinthinus) was presented for sudden onset of severe weakness in the legs. Neurologic examination revealed bilateral paresis of the pelvic limbs and decreased proprioception. Results of radiographs and computed tomography (CT) revealed variably sized soft tissue nodules throughout the lungs and invading into the spine and vertebral canal. Soon after the CT scan, the bird went into cardiorespiratory arrest and died. At necropsy, several yellow, coalescing nodules that were firm with a caseous component were present in the lungs, and a focus of similar tissue was attached to the vertebrae and invaded the spinal canal. On histologic examination, the diagnosis was primary pulmonary bronchial adenocarcinoma with spinal invasion.

A geriatric male great horned owl (Bubo virginianus) that was a resident at a raptor center was presented for examination because of stridor and weight loss. Results of physical examination, diagnostic imaging, and biopsy were consistent with disseminated lymphoma involving the oropharynx, neck region (including thyroid and parathyroid glands), keel, spleen, and liver. Attempts to treat the owl with chlorambucil failed, and the owl was euthanatized 5 months later. Neoplastic cells from this owl were immunoreactive to CD-3 antibody, suggesting the lymphoma was of T-cell origin.

A diagnosis of adverse extrapyramidal symptoms (EPS) was reached in a 14-year-old female blue and gold macaw (Ara ararauna) that presented with disseminated dystonia (manifesting as pacing, head bobbing, and circling), intermittent ataxia, and coarse-muscle tremors of 60 hours duration. The patient had been treated 23 days previously with haloperidol decanoate (1.7 mg/kg IM once), and for 3 days before hospitalization with clomipramine HCl at a prescribed dosage of 3.9 mg/kg PO q12h. The patient was treated with supportive care, a gradual reduction in the clomipramine dose, and intramuscular and oral diphenhydramine (2 mg/kg q12h). As commonly observed in human patients with drug-induced EPS, a dramatic resolution of clinical signs was observed within 2 hours after the first intramuscular administration of diphenhydramine. It is recommended that EPS be considered in macaws experiencing neurologic signs secondary to clomipramine administration and, in particular, in those treated concurrently or previously with haloperidol.

A 2-year-old sun conure (Aratinga solstitialis) was examined because of acute lethargy and depression. Physical examination revealed severe weakness with ventroflexion of the head and neck and seizure episodes precipitated by handling. Empirical and supportive care was instituted, and serial diagnostic testing revealed no specific diagnosis or etiology. Antemortem test results for West Nile virus were negative. After 2 weeks of a deteriorating clinical condition, euthanasia was elected and necropsy was performed. Gross examination revealed no significant lesions; however, histologic examination of brain tissue revealed perivascular cuffing of mononuclear inflammatory cells in the cerebrum and mild perivascular, lymphocytic, and plasmacytic infiltrates scattered in the grey matter of the cervical spinal cord. Viral isolation of brain tissue was positive for West Nile virus.

A 3-year-old male nanday conure (Nandayus nenday) was presented with acute lethargy, polyuria, and polydipsia. Marked persistent hyperglycemia, glycosuria, and ketonuria were also noted. The serum insulin concentration (<3 μU/ml) was lower than reference ranges described for other psittacine birds. Initial treatment included insulin, antibiotics, and supportive care. Insulin therapy was adjusted based on results of serial blood glucose curves. Histopathologic examination of pancreatic biopsy samples revealed normal exocrine pancreatic tissue with rare lymphoplasmocytic infiltrates and absence of pancreatic islets, suggesting atrophy of endocrine pancreatic tissue. Resolution of clinical signs and a normalized blood glucose curve were obtained after administration of long-acting insulin (0.3 IU/kg IM am and 0.25 IU/kg IM pm). One month after initial presentation, the conure was admitted for severe dyspnea and lethargy and died despite supportive care. Histopathologic examination of the pancreas revealed nearly total depletion of the endocrine pancreas with moderate lymphoplasmocytic pancreatitis. Immunohistochemical evaluation of the remaining pancreatic islets was negative for the presence of insulin and positive for glucagon. Results of polymerase chain reaction tests for Chlamydophila psittaci performed on tissues from the liver, spleen, and lung were negative. Transmission electron microscopy did not demonstrate viruses. Clinical and pathological findings observed in this case are consistent with insulin-dependant type 1 diabetes.