A 5-yr-old, female, inland bearded dragon (Pogona vitticeps) was presented with a firm swelling on the ventromedial aspect of the right mandible. Fine-needle aspiration was consistent with blood aspiration; further investigations were declined. Surgical resection was performed successfully with minimal hemorrhage, and resected tissue was sent for histopathology. This was consistent with an aneurysm, fibrosis, and intraluminal fibrosis. The patient has since recovered well, and there has been no recurrence in 7 months.

Stenotrophomonas maltophilia is a gram-negative bacterium that can be routinely identified in the aquatic environment, and has become an emergent, multi-drug-resistant life-threatening organism in some circumstances. This bacterium was identified as a presumptive causative agent in cases of polysystemic granulomatous disease in one diamondback terrapin (Malaclemys terrapin) and one mata mata (Chelus fimbriata). Both chelonians presented with lethargy, hyporexia, and multifocal subcutaneous masses diagnosed by physical examination and in one individual on computed tomography (CT). The primary hematologic finding was moderate to severe heterophilic leukocytosis, and both turtles were treated with a combination of supportive care, systemic antibiotics, and/or surgical resection of subcutaneous masses. Medical and surgical management were unsuccessful, and one patient was euthanized and the other found deceased. Necropsies revealed multisystemic granulomas, and cultures identified growth of Stenotrophomonas maltophilia. A postmortem investigation into possible risk factors identified comorbidities including shell disease, repeated administration of injectable antibiotics, low environmental temperature, and aquatic pH changes as possible contributing factors. This bacterium appears to be an emerging organism of concern and should be considered as a potential cause of granulomas in aquatic chelonians.

Organic pollutants have bioaccumulative effects and induce a high index of toxicity in aquatic ecosystems. This study reports on tomographic abnormalities found in free-living turtles (Geoffroy's toadhead turtle, Phrynops geoffroanus) from an urban area near the Capibaribe and Beberibe River basins in Brazil, which are known to be contaminated by heavy metals and solid waste. Clinical and tomographic evaluation of eight turtles was performed to assess their health status for subsequent release. Tomographic analysis revealed bone abnormalities, including demineralization, coarse trabecular pattern, subperiosteal bone resorption, deformity of dorsal vertebrae, and shell fracture. Considering that turtles are recognized as bioindicators of water quality, a high occurrence of bone abnormalities may suggest environmental pollution in the studied area and signal that conservation initiatives are needed to safeguard the aquatic ecosystem of the metropolitan region of Recife.

Louisiana pine snakes (Pituophis ruthveni) are a threatened species with a range limited to portions of Louisiana and Texas. There are captive reproduction programs that aim to assist in the recovery of this species. Therefore, obtaining information that can aid in maintaining their health, such as a complete ocular examination, is a critical component in conservation efforts. Examination of the snake ocular posterior segment is challenging because of the presence of striated uveal musculature that is unresponsive to anticholinergic agents, and the presence of the spectacle, which may create a barrier to topical mydriatics. The objectives of this study were to document normal ocular biometric measurements (axial globe length [AP], lens thickness (LT), and vitreous chamber depth [VCD]) in this species using ultrasonography (US) and to assess the effects of topically applied rocuronium bromide (RB) solution (one- and two-drop protocol, 20 µl and 40 µl, respectively) to facilitate noninvasive examination of the fundus. The ocular biometric measurements were then correlated to morphometric data including snout–vent length (SVL), tail length (TL), total body length (SVL + TL), sex, and body condition score (BCS). We found that US, using an 8–18-MHz linear array probe, provided adequate image quality to measure the above parameters in all snakes (n = 8), and that there were no significant correlations between the morphometric data and ocular biometric US measurements (P > 0.05). RB solution applied topically to the healthy, intact spectacle did not induce mydriasis in a subset of this same population (n = 6; P > 0.05) using either the one- or two-drop protocol. In conclusion, ocular US can be utilized as a noninvasive diagnostic tool in Louisiana pine snakes and further studies are needed to evaluate noninvasive methods of inducing mydriasis in this species.

Gastric cryptosporidiosis (GC) is an insidious infection in squamates caused by the protozoan Cryptosporidium serpentis, and it has impacted the captive breeding colony for the eastern indigo snake (Drymarchon couperi) reintroduction program. This study investigates a novel treatment of GC in the eastern indigo snake. Seventeen eastern indigo snakes with GC were randomly divided into three groups: A, B, and C. Group A (n = 6) snakes received parenteral administration of 25 mg/kg of vitamin C, 0.5 mg/kg of vitamin E, and 50 µg/kg of selenium and 5 ml/kg of 3% hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) gavage; group B (n = 6) snakes received the same injections, but 5 ml/kg of water gavage; and group C (n = 5) snakes received no treatments and served as the control. All eastern indigo snakes from groups A and B tested negative for C. serpentis for 3 months following treatment, whereas only 60% (3/5) of snakes in group C tested negative. Eastern indigo snakes testing negative received one 4-mg/kg dexamethasone sodium phosphate injection. For 3 months following dexamethasone, 66.7% (4/6) of snakes in group A continued to test negative, compared with 83.3% (5/6) of snakes in group B and 20% (1/5) in group C. Eastern indigo snakes testing negative underwent gastric biopsies, but only one snake from group C was confirmed to be negative for C. serpentis. Although parenteral vitamin C, vitamin E, and selenium with H₂O₂ gavage decreased shedding of C. serpentis, it did not outperform the vitamins and selenium without H₂O₂. The parenteral use of 25 mg/kg of vitamin C, 0.5 mg/kg of vitamin E, and 50 µg/kg of selenium once weekly cannot be recommended for treatment of C. serpentis in eastern indigo snakes if complete resolution of the parasite is desired.

Two-dimensional (2D) and Doppler echocardiography is considered the most practical diagnostic tool for antemortem evaluation of reptilian heart disease but has only been described in a limited number of chelonian species. Cardiac morphology and function were evaluated by ultrasonography in 35 clinically healthy, captive non-sedated European pond turtles (Emys orbicularis) using 2D mode, M mode, and pulsed-wave spectral Doppler. Turtles were placed in a temperature-controlled water tank (24–26°C, 75.2–78.8°F) for cardiac examination through the right cervicobrachial window using water as coupling agent. Each echocardiogram included the evaluation of 19 variables—including six in 2D mode, seven in M mode, and six in Doppler mode—and was performed in 5.64 min on average. Morphological and functional abnormalities were identified in eight turtles, including atrioventricular insufficiencies (n = 5), pericardial effusions (n = 4), increased velocity of the ventricular outflow tract (n = 1), and bradyarrhythmia (n = 2). Reference intervals could be established for the 19 parameters in the remaining individuals after excluding outliers (n = 25). Statistically significant positive correlations between weight and diastolic (0.61, P = 0.001) and systolic (0.46, P = 0.018) ventricular volumes, and diastolic ventricular diameter (0.35, P = 0.03) were identified. This study establishes an initial database for the evaluation of captive European pond turtle cardiovascular system by a simple and clinically applicable echocardiographic technique.

A significant disease of concern in captive populations of snakes is gastric cryptosporidiosis, caused by Cryptosporidium serpentis, a gastrointestinal, protozoal parasite that can cause varying degrees of morbidity and mortality. The purpose of this study was to understand physiological responses of eastern indigo snakes (EIS; Drymarchon couperi) infected with C. serpentis. Body condition index (BCI), heterophil:lymphocyte ratio (HLR), bactericidal ability (BA), sheep red blood cell hemolysis-hemagglutination assays (SRBC), and plasma corticosterone levels (CORT) were compared between EIS across cryptosporidiosis infection states including cryptosporidia infection positive with clinical signs, infection positive without clinical signs, infection-recovered, and infection-free snakes. We found snakes that had recovered from C. serpentis had significantly lower SRBC titers than C. serpentis–negative snakes (P < 0.05). Recovered snakes had significantly higher BCI than infection positive with clinical signs, infection positive without clinical signs, and infection-free snakes (P = 0.00198). Female EIS had significantly higher CORT levels than males (P = 0.0112), BA had a significant positive relationship with HLR (P = 0.0333), and BA had a significant relationship with SRBC (P = 0.0170). These results give meaningful insight into reptilian physiology of disease and show that snakes recovered from C. serpentis may have remaining negative effects of cryptosporidiosis on their immune system. Results from this study may aid conservation projects in determining suitability for release of EIS that have been infected with C. serpentis.

There is limited information on the prevalence and etiology of urolithiasis, although it is considered a common condition in chelonians. Several hypotheses regarding urolith formation in chelonians have been proposed, but none has been tested by epidemiological research. The objective of this study was to evaluate the prevalence of urolithiasis in a large number of chelonians and to evaluate the association between housing and dietary conditions and urolithiasis in African spurred tortoises (Centrochelys sulcata). Records of all client-owned chelonians that underwent radiographs at two institutions were extracted. Univariable and multivariable logistic regression models were built to explore associations between the presence of urolithiasis and husbandry variables. Prevalence of urolithiasis was 4.4% (95% confidence interval [CI]: 3.3–5.9%; 46/1,033) among all chelonians. Terrestrial chelonians had 64 times the odds (odds ratio [OR]: 64.2; 95% CI: 15.4–266.6; P < 0.001) of presenting urolithiasis compared with aquatic chelonians. African spurred tortoises had 22 times the odds (OR: 22.3; 95% CI: 7.7–64.5; P < 0.001) of presenting urolithiasis compared with other terrestrial chelonians. African spurred tortoises living in a confined indoor area had 3 times the odds of presenting urolithiasis compared with the tortoises living outdoors (OR: 3.01; 95% CI: 1.06–8.55; P = 0.038), and African spurred tortoises that were not fed any fruit had 0.31 times the odds of presenting urolithiasis compared with the tortoises fed fruit (OR: 0.31; 95% CI: 0.10–0.99; P = 0.049). Certain chelonians in captivity are at higher risk than others of suffering urolithiasis. African spurred tortoises in a confined indoor area had the highest risk of developing urolithiasis. As a precaution, avoiding fruit should be considered in the diet of African spurred tortoises.