Twelve Australian water dragons (Intellagama lesueurii) presented with acute neurologic dysfunction over a 2-month period. Clinical signs included obtundation, head tilt, loss of proprioceptive and righting reflexes, ataxia, and hyperesthesia. Various treatment protocols had no apparent effect on clinical signs or disease progression, and all 12 animals died or were euthanized. A retrospective review was carried out on tissue sets that were available for nine individuals. Four (44%) of the nine water dragons were classified as cases with long (≥8 days) duration of neurologic signs, and five (56%) of nine were classified as short (≤7 days) duration. On histopathology, all cases with a long duration of neurologic signs had brain lesions characterized by encephalomalacia (i.e., softening of the brain due to necrosis) and gitter cell infiltrates. In the three (33%) water dragons with the longest duration of clinical signs (>13 days), the necrosis was more severe and numerous tortuous vascular formations were present in the brain sections. The five (56%) water dragons with short duration of neurologic signs had similar neurologic symptoms but no histologic brain lesions. The surviving 29 water dragons from the cohort group showed no similar neurologic signs or histopathologic lesions in the 4 yr following this case series. A viral or toxic etiology was suspected.

A cold-stunned, sub-adult, female loggerhead sea turtle (Caretta caretta) was found stranded in December 2012 on Cape Cod, Massachusetts. The turtle was treated routinely; however, she did not gain weight as expected during rehabilitation. Eleven weeks after stranding, staff noticed stertorous upper airway sounds. Oral examination revealed a unilateral laryngeal paralysis-like condition resulting in partial airway obstruction. Magnetic resonance imaging and electromyography showed abnormalities of the abductor arytenoideae muscle. Muscle and hepatic biopsies were collected for histologic and toxicologic assessment to seek an underlying cause of the disorder. The turtle did not recover from anesthesia, and necropsy revealed a large amount of hemorrhage from the liver biopsy site. Unilateral myofiber atrophy of the abductor arytenoideae muscle was the predominant histological finding.

An 8-yr-old intact male woma python (Aspidites ramsayi) presented for a caudal coelomic mass effect of 3 wk duration. Ultrasound and fine needle aspiration with cytology failed to identify the source of the mass. Exploratory surgery found a 10-cm diameter, lobulated, cystic mass closely associated with the left kidney. Tumor resection with left adrenalectomy and left nephrectomy was performed. Histopathologic examination identified an adrenal interrenal cell (cortical) adenocarcinoma with adjacent renal fibrosis. The snake recovered from surgery uneventfully and was clinically healthy over an 18 month follow-up period. Eleven months postsurgery a contrast-enhanced coelomic computed tomography scan was performed to evaluate the snake for metastatic disease or local recurrence. No metastases were identified, but local recurrence was not definitively ruled out and continued monitoring of the surgery site was recommended. Eighteen months postsurgery an ultrasound examination of the snake revealed significant tumor regrowth. Because of the recurrence of disease, no further treatment was pursued.

A 27-yr-old female red-footed tortoise (Chelonoidis carbonaria) was presented for examination because of an acute onset of frequent vomiting. Plasma biochemistry and blood gas results revealed that the tortoise had hyperproteinemia, hyperglycemia, hypochloremia, and metabolic alkalosis. A computed tomography scan showed a focal dilation of the proximal duodenum with a fluid filled duodenum and stomach. A plastronotomy followed by a gastrotomy were performed and a phytobezoar was removed from the pyloric antrum. The metabolic disorders and anorexia resolved over the following three weeks. The tortoise appeared healthy a year later with no recurrence of gastrointestinal signs. Obstructive phytobezoar appears to be a rare occurrence in tortoises. This report documents the metabolic disturbances and advanced imaging findings observed with proximal gastrointestinal obstruction in a chelonian patient.

A 16-year-old, male, intact blue-tongued skink (Tiliqua scincoides) was evaluated for reluctance to eat, deviation of the tongue, and a pink mass noted in the mouth. On physical examination, a 2–3 cm long by 1 cm wide pink, well-vascularized, friable, cobblestone-textured mass was found adhered to the median raphe on the ventral aspect of the tongue. Surgical debulking was performed and biopsy samples were submitted for histopathology, which revealed a squamous cell carcinoma. Very small numbers of mixed-growth bacteria were also cultured from the sample. A complete blood count revealed toxic heterophils, monocytosis, and basophilia; however, the total white blood cell count was within reference values. A partial glossectomy was performed excising the distal 40% of the tongue, including the mass with 0.5–1 cm gross surgical margins. Histopathologically, the neoplasm was excised with narrow margins of normal tissue, leading to the concern for possible local tumor recurrence and metastasis. The patient was hospitalized for 1 wk following surgery for continued monitoring and to provide nutritional support. Two days after discharge from the hospital, the patient began eating. Weekly recheck appointments affirmed the tongue was healing without complication and the animal exhibited normal food prehension, appetite, and weight maintenance. There was no tumor recurrence 2.5 yr postsurgery. Currently, the skink is able to adequately locate and prehend food and is maintaining its weight and normal body condition following partial glossectomy.

An adult female American bullfrog (Lithobates catesbeianus) presented with an exophytic multilobular soft tissue mass involving the majority of the second left front digit. An excisional biopsy was performed under general anesthesia using a buffered tricaine methanesulfonate bath. The entire digit, including the distal, middle, and proximal phalanges, and associated mass were surgically removed by dislocation at the metacarpophalangeal joint. The incision was closed with 4-0 polydioxanone using two horizontal mattress sutures and the frog was recovered in a freshwater bath. Histological examination revealed a well-differentiated squamous cell carcinoma with a mitotic rate of less than one per high power field. Six months following surgery the frog was fully recovered and returned to use in an educational program. The frog survived four years postsurgery with no gross or histological evidence of neoplasm recurrence.

Two recent molecular analyses of morphologically similar fungal isolates formerly grouped under the appellation “Chrysosporium anamorph of Nannizziopsis vriesii (CANV) complex” led to major taxonomic revisions and revealed new insights into the biology of these reptile pathogens. All CANV-complex isolates differed from N. vriesii and were assigned to 16 species, either within Nannizziopsis or within the new genera Paranannizziopsis and Ophidiomyces, and 14 of these species were newly described. From these revisions, a trend in host specificity clearly emerged that was not previously apparent. Nannizziopsis now includes nine species associated with chamaeleonid, gekkonid, cordylid, teiid, agamid, and iguanid lizards; crocodiles; and human hosts. Paranannizziopsis includes four species that infect squamates and tuataras. Ophidiomyces, with the single species Ophidiomyces ophiodiicola (formerly Chrysosporium ophiodiicola), is only associated with terrestrial or semiaquatic snakes. Nannizziopsi guarroi (formerly Chrysosporium guarroi) is the main causal agent of yellow fungus disease in captive bearded dragons (Pogona vitticeps), and O. ophiodiicola is the cause of mycoses in captive snakes and of snake fungal disease, an emergent global threat to populations of endangered wild snakes. Histopathology, polymerase chain reaction assays, and culture are crucial for confirming a diagnosis of fungal infection in reptiles; however, because fungal identification based on morphologic and physiologic features alone is difficult, sequencing should be sought to speciate reptile fungal isolates. Information gathered from PCR assays and molecular speciation will help in outlining pathogenic potential and contagion risks associated with each of these newly recognized fungal species and allow for a more comprehensive understanding of the ecology, distribution, and host range of these pathogens.

Invertebrate iridoviruses (IIVs) (family: Iridoviridae) are known pathogens for invertebrates, causing high mortality and reduced fertility in affected insects. Over the past two decades, IIVs have also been increasingly found in lizards in association with nonspecific clinical signs. It has been hypothesized that IIVs from insects can also infect reptiles. From 2010–11, IIVs were repeatedly detected via polymerase chain reaction testing and virus isolation methods in routine diagnostic samples from different amphibians: three blue poison dart frogs (Dendrobates tinctorius azureus), four edible frogs (Pelophylax kl. esculentus), a giant ditch frog (Leptodactylus fallax), an Amazon milk frog (Trachycephalus resinifictrix), mixed organs from agile frogs (Rana dalmatina), a black-spined toad (Bufo melanostictus), and one Lake Urmia newt (Neurergus crocatus). IIVs were found in skin swabs from apparently healthy animals, as well as in multiple organs of frogs that died of unknown causes. Prey insects (crickets) from one owner also tested positive for the presence of IIV. The obtained partial sequences from the major capsid protein (MCP) gene (222nt) from each of these were 100% identical to each other and 98% identical to IIV-6, the type species of the genus Iridovirus. Although the pathogenicity of IIV in amphibians remains unclear, these findings provide further evidence that IIVs may be able to infect vertebrates under some conditions and underline the importance of the genus Iridovirus in vertebrates.

Midazolam is increasingly used in reptiles as part of a multidrug induction for general anesthesia. Studies of its use as a sole sedative are limited to a few reports in turtles and crocodiles. A retrospective review was carried out to assess the clinical efficacy of midazolam as a sedative in reptiles at the National Aquarium, Baltimore, Maryland. Medical procedures from 48 events involving 34 individuals were included in the review. Information obtained included species, age, sex, body weight, type of procedure performed, dosage of midazolam administered, use of a concurrent analgesic, time to effect, use of a reversal agent, and efficacy of sedation (acceptable vs. unacceptable). Midazolam was used in a wide variety of small- to medium-sized turtles, lizards, and snakes. Diagnostic imaging (e.g., radiography) and minor surgical procedures—in combination with local anesthetics (e.g., distal digit amputation)—were the most common procedures performed. The median dosage of midazolam was 0.3 mg/kg (range 0.1–1.0 mg/kg). Acceptable sedation was achieved in 80% of events. Midazolam can provide acceptable sedation to facilitate minor procedures in a variety of reptiles using dosages that are lower than previously reported in the literature.