A new species of toad is described from small streams in the hills of Cuchilla de Haedo and Cuchilla Grande in northeastern Uruguay. Specimens of the new species were previously mistaken for Bufo arenarum; they differ from B. arenarum by having elongated parotoid glands and reddish-brown parotoid and cephalic crests. A discriminant analysis resulted in three groups corresponding to B. arenarum, Bufo rufus, and the specimens herein described as a new species.

Reports of the disappearance and decline of amphibians have stimulated interest in developing more accurate methods for sampling amphibian populations. Specific sampling methods are often suggested because of logistical concerns or simple tradition, but the validity of underlying assumptions for particular methods are rarely confirmed. This study examined potential problems and biases with quantitative enclosure sampling of larval amphibians. Results indicate that movement within a pond by an investigator does not reduce the number of captured tadpoles any more than does approaching a sampling station from the shore. Disturbance created in taking a sample does not appear to reduce number of tadpoles captured in subsequent samples taken 5 m or even 1 m away. Net type can be critical in how efficiently animals are removed from the enclosure, but the effect of net type on capture efficiency may vary with the amount of vegetation present. Investigators should assess the validity of assumptions for enclosure sampling before using this technique to draw inferences about populations of larval amphibians.

The reproductive cycle and egg production of Chersina angulata females, maintained under natural climate conditions, were studied over 29 months using ultrasonography. Angulate tortoises initiated egg production in February (late summer) and were gravid through most of the year. A short nongravid period in January indicates a cyclic rather than continuous reproductive pattern. Chersina angulata females produced one egg at a time, and clutch frequency ranged from one to six per year. Annual fecundity was influenced by the date of reproductive onset and egg-retention time; early ovulation and a short retention time increased annual fecundity. Egg retention time was highly variable (23–212 days) and correlated to ambient temperature (inversely) and rainfall (positively). Temperature had no direct effect on oviposition, but rainfall served as an important exogenous cue, perhaps facilitating nesting. Oviposition and ovulation were synchronized and females prepared a new egg immediately after oviposition. This reproductive pattern is highly unusual for chelonians in Mediterranean climates. This pattern might facilitate reproduction in the different environments over the range of C. angulata.

Recent expeditions to the Lake Palankarinna area of South Australia resulted in the oldest and only known extinct skink genus in Australia. The holotype of a new genus and species, Proegernia palankarinnensis, was collected from the basal portion of the Late Oligocene Etadunna Formation from the Minkina Local Fauna. Additional scincid fossils previously recovered from higher levels in the formation include material that may be referable to Proegernia. Proegernia is placed in the Egernia group within the Australian Lygosominae, based mainly on its closed Meckelian groove with the apex of the splenial notch low on the lingual surface. However, the apex is markedly more anterior in Proegernia than in any living Egernia group taxon. Proegernia possesses characters suggestive of its position as a stem taxon for later occurring skinks of the Egernia species groups. Even so, overall stage of evolution suggests that the Scincidae of Australia had a long evolutionary history prior to the Late Oligocene, a contention supported by previous molecular studies.

The previously recognized subspecies (used here as a heuristic tool) of Phyllorhynchus decurtatus artificially compartmentalize the inconsistent geographic variation in this species. Principal component analysis did not identify consistent geographic groupings of individuals. Regression Analysis revealed a longitudinal cline in number of ventral scales, as well as some weaker clinal trends in other characters. There is extensive overlap in all morphological and color-pattern characters examined between four subspecies of P. decurtatus and their intergrades. There are differences between mean scale and blotch counts between previously recognized subspecies, but they do not represent discrete differences among these taxa. Discriminant Analysis demonstrated the inconsistency in the observed geographic variation in this species. We conclude that P. decurtatus represents a geographically variable species lacking consistent geographic pattern classes.

We describe two new species of lowland Litoria from Normanby Island, off the southeastern tip of New Guinea. One new species is a medium-sized member of the Litoria thesaurensis species group and differs from the other three members of that group in having a combination of white bones, extensive webbing, a loud quacking call, and a uniformly yellow color pattern. The second species is apparently a member of the Litoria bicolor species group and differs from other Papuan members of that group in a number of important morphological features (relative head shape, absence of vomerine teeth, absence of alary processes on the hyoid) that suggest the L. bicolor species group may not be a monophyletic assemblage. Both new species are currently known with certainty only from Normanby Island but seem likely to occupy at least the remainder of the D'Entrecasteaux archipelago as well.

The Flatwoods Salamander (Ambystoma cingulatum) was listed as a federally threatened species because loss and alteration of adult and larval habitats caused population declines. Current management plans for this species must include maintenance of appropriate larval habitat. However, much of the natural history of this species is poorly known. Our objective was to evaluate the diet of A. cingulatum larvae. We examined stomach contents of 122 larvae collected from Florida and South Carolina. We identified and measured invertebrate prey and estimated biomass using length-mass relationships. Crustaceans, mostly isopods (Caecidotea), amphipods (Crangonyx), cyclopoid copepods, and cladocerans (primarily Simocephalus and other daphnids) were the most abundant prey. Isopods and amphipods also dominated stomach content biomass because of their relatively large size. Stomachs of small A. cingulatum larvae had significantly higher numbers and proportions of cladocerans and smaller numbers and proportions of isopods compared to larger larvae (P < 0.05). Smaller larvae also had significantly lower amounts and proportions of isopod biomass in their guts compared to large larvae (P < 0.05). We found Hedruris siredonis, a parasitic nematode, in ∼11% of stomachs examined; this is a new host record for this parasite. Our results indicate that larvae feed primarily on freshwater crustaceans, particularly isopods, copepods, cladocerans, and amphipods. Management activities that adversely impact freshwater crustacean communities in breeding habitats, such as pesticide use or introductions of predatory fish, could adversely impact remaining populations of this salamander.

A new Andean species of Phyllonastes is described from east-central Peru (Departamento de Pasco, 2900 m elevation). The new species differs from all known Phyllonastes by lacking discs with circumferential groove on the toes, inguinal spots, and dorsolateral stripes. The new species shares characters with members of the genus Phrynopus, which suggests possible relationships between the genera.

The description of the species Callulina kreffti was based on specimens collected in the East Usambara Mountains of Tanzania. Successive collecting has shown this species to be widely distributed through the Eastern Arc Mountains. Advertisement calls from populations in the type locality of Callulina kreffti were compared with calls from populations in the West Usambara Mountains. Analysis of the calls suggested that these two populations of Callulina represent two separate taxa. Subsequent morphological and molecular investigations indicated that these two populations are distinct. Herein, we describe a new Callulina species on the basis of call, morphology and molecular sequences.

The reproductive cycle and cycle in fat body mass are described for male and female Sceloporus pyrocephalus taken from the Municipio de Tejupilco, state of México, México. Males reached sexual maturity at 50.0 mm snout–vent length (SVL); females reached sexual maturity at 47.0 mm SVL. Testis of males began to increase in size in early April, maximum testis mass occurred during May through October, and testis mass decreased abruptly in November and December. Maximum testicular growth was associated with increased temperature, photoperiod, and precipitation. This is an oviparous species. Enlarged vitellogenic follicles first appeared during early May in females. Females contained oviductal eggs from May to September. Vitellogenesis, follicular growth, and egg production were associated with increasing photoperiod and precipitation but not with temperature. From a sample of 21 females with oviductal eggs, 13 (61.9%) had two clutches, and eight (38.1%) had a single clutch. Mean clutch size was not correlated with female SVL.

Sexual dimorphism is widespread in animals, either because of sexual selection or ecological divergence between the sexes. In natricine snakes, for example, females are usually larger than males and have larger heads and shorter tails relative to body length. Grass Snakes (Natrix natrix) near Canterbury, U.K., generally proved to be typical natricines in these respects. Most differences between the sexes were apparent at hatching, rather than being confined to adults, but there was no evidence that the sexes differed in allometry. Despite high r²-values, allometry of relationships of body mass, head width, and tail length with body length were not satisfactorily explained by linear regressions (using log-transformed data). Rather, both polynomial and piecewise regressions provided better fits, suggesting that allometric coefficients were not constant but varied with body size. Nonetheless, all analyses were in agreement that small snakes had relatively heavier bodies and wider heads than large snakes. How general such patterns are, and their ecological significance, remain to be determined.

A new species of Eleutherodactylus is described from the Serranía de Pirre, Darién Province, Panama. This species is similar to Eleutherodactylus altae and Eleutherodactylus pardalis, but can be differentiated by the lack of red or white spots on groin and limbs.

We investigated the aspects of the reproductive characteristics of three species of Phyllomedusa, identified the main embryo predators, and quantified the impact of different predators on clutches of each Phyllomedusa species in Central Amazonia, Brazil. Clutches of Phyllomedusa tarsius had the lowest proportion of attack by predators (29%), 59% of Phyllomedusa tomopterna clutches were attacked by predators, and 61% of Phyllomedusa bicolor clutches were attacked by predators. Staphilynid beetles and phorid flies were the main causes of clutch loss (18 and 17 clutches, respectively), followed by mammals (6), and unidentified (13) predators. Our field observations showed that egg mortality per clutch resulting from phorid flies and staphilynid beetles predation that varied from 67% in P. tomopterna to 77% in P. tarsius. Mammal predation was registered only in P. bicolor clutches, and it was 100%. High clutch attacked rates and within-clutch mortality suggest that predation plays an important role in determining larval recruitment for arboreal egg-laying in Central Amazonia.

The Cooter, Pseudemys floridana, and the Pond Slider, Trachemys scripta, are two abundant freshwater turtles in the southeastern United States, but little is known of their reproductive ecology in northwestern Florida. I studied their nesting phenology and behavior, clutch size and frequency, rates of nest predation, and hatchling overwintering behavior from 2001–2003 at Lake Jackson, Leon County, Florida. Both species nested from mid-April to mid-July with peaks in May (47% of P. floridana and 55% of T. scripta nests). All 43 nests of P. floridana had a central chamber and two side holes. Nest predation on both species was high and may have been caused by a combination of artificial habitats (road-side and drift fences). Mammalian predators and imported red fire ants (Solenopsis invicta) destroyed all or part of 99 nests (98%; P. floridana, N = 30; T. scripta, N = 69) found at drift fences. Raccoons (Procyon lotor) destroyed eggs in all three chambers in 24 of 26 nests of P. floridana. Mean clutch size for P. floridana was 12.4 eggs and female size and clutch size were positively related. Mean clutch size for T. scripta was 6.6 eggs. There was a weak positive relationship between female size and clutch size of T. scripta. Some hatchling P. floridana and T. scripta emerged from mid-July to early October in the year of oviposition, whereas others remained in nests for up to 10 months and emerged from February to May in the following year. A review of published literature reveals that some reproductive traits, such as nesting season, that vary geographically in P. floridana do not vary substantially among populations of T. scripta. Geographic variation in some reproductive characteristics of P. floridana is apparently the result of a gradient in temperature whereas others (e.g., unique behavioral traits) may be adaptations to past or present regional conditions.

We sequenced two regions of the mitochondrial genome, ND4 and d-loop, from 64 Eumeces septentrionalis to assess intra- and interspecific population differentiation. We constructed haplotype genealogies for nine Eumeces septentrionalis septentrionalis populations in previously glaciated regions and used nested clade analysis to examine the role of vicariance and dispersal in shaping the population structure of E. s. septentrionalis in the northern part of its range following Pleistocene paleoclimatological events. In addition, we used DNA sequence data to compare populations of the northern subspecies (E. s. septentrionalis) with the southern subspecies (Eumeces septentrionalis obtusirostris) to determine whether specific level differentiation is evident. For populations of E. septentrionalis in previously glaciated areas, nested clade analyses revealed isolation by distance with restricted gene flow at both haplotype and upper clade levels as the inferred geographical pattern reflecting the lack of overlapping haplotypes in distant populations. These results suggest that colonization of E. septentrionalis into previously glaciated areas was from a single source with restricted gene flow. These results do not support past population fragmentation or colonization from multiple, genetically distinct source populations. Parsimony and maximum likelihood phylogenetic analyses showed reciprocal monophyly between northern (E. s. septentrionalis) and southern (E. s. obtusirostris) subspecies with uncorrected sequence divergence ranging from 6.7–7.0%. These results, combined with the morphological differences found in previous studies, suggest that these allopatric populations are on separate evolutionary trajectories.

Mating period and gametogenesis of a temperate population of Gekko japonicus were investigated by gross dissection and histology. The mating period of this gecko extended throughout the active season, as inferred from the year-round presence of sperm in the epididymis, consistent with reports of copulation. Because oogenesis occurred from April through July, the oogenetic pattern followed an associated reproductive cycle typical of temperate areas. However, although males exhibited an associated reproductive cycle, spermiogenesis continued throughout the active season, similar to that of constant reproductive cycles observed in the tropical lizards.

Removal of organic sediment from lakes and ponds is an established management technique that is intended to enhance sport fisheries, improve boater access, and increase stormwater capacity. Data on the effects of this management technique on lake ecosystems are limited. Our objective was to determine the effect of mechanical sediment removal on herpetofauna at five sites in northern Florida. We collected a total of 883 individuals of 31 species of herpetofauna excavated by machinery during sediment removal. Across the five sites, the average number of individuals collected was 177 per site (SD = 119, range = 71–310). The most abundant herpetofauna we encountered were aquatic turtles (Trachemys scripta, Chelydra serpentina) and large aquatic salamanders (Amphiuma means, Siren spp.). Mortality from sediment removal operations may have a detrimental effect on herpetofauna populations, especially species that depend on dried lake sediments for aestivation or with limited dispersal abilities.

We studied the reproductive cycle of the teiid lizard, Cnemidophorus nativo, at the restinga of Guaratiba, in Prado municipality, Bahia State, northeastern Brazil. The population was all female. For each female, we recorded total number of follicles, number of vitellogenic follicles in each ovary, size and color of the largest follicle, presence and size of corpora lutea, and number and size of oviductal eggs. The smallest reproductive female measured 48.8 mm (SVL). Clutch size varied from one to four eggs (mean = 2.2 ± 1.0; N = 37) and was significantly affected by female size (F_1,35 = 8.437; R² = 0.194; P = 0.006). Fifty percent or more of sexually mature females were reproductive each month, containing either oviductal eggs or vitellogenic ovarian follicles and juveniles (30–48.3 mm SVL) occurred in nearly all months studied, indicating an extended period of reproduction by the species. The number of reproductive females was not significantly related to monthly rainfall or to temperature in the area. We conclude that the population of C. nativo at Guaratiba is unisexual, oviparous and that reproduction occurs throughout the year, independent of habitat seasonality.

Deformities have been documented in many anurans, but little baseline information exists for most species. To estimate deformity levels in Wood Frogs (Rana sylvatica) in areas of relatively low disturbance, we summarized data from over 21,000 individuals examined during field studies in three distinct ecoregions of Western Canada. Deformity levels were low (<2%) in all wild populations sampled and included examples of polymelia, polyphalangy, ectromelia, and amelia. We suggest that many of the documented deformities were related to physical trauma and that dramatic deformities were recorded more often than those that were less noticeable, such as deformed digits.

Animals in territorial neighborhoods often show differential behavior toward different classes of conspecifics. We tested whether males of the lizard Anolis sagrei outside of their territorial neighborhoods differed in visual display behavior when matched with neighbors versus with nonneighbors. We captured nine dyads of neighbors and nine dyads of nonneighbors, placed each dyad on an artificial habitat patch in the field, and then observed display behavior for one hour. Dyads of neighbors exhibited a smaller proportion of bobbing headbob displays than did dyads of nonneighbors. The direction of this display difference is consistent with the hypothesis that neighbors were treated less aggressively than nonneighbors.

We document temperature-dependent sex determination (TSD) in the Pancake Tortoise (Malacochersus tornieri). The nesting season is biased toward a fall–winter pattern and the embryos have a postovipositional developmental arrest. Males initially grow faster than females, but females are the larger sex. The species does not readily conform to a hypothesis that TSD is adaptively maintained through a direct association of juvenile growth with adult sexual size dimorphism.

Sternotherus odoratus is an omnivorous turtle inhabiting shallow littoral zones of lakes and swamps in the eastern United States. Previous studies have quantified the diet of this turtle, but few have addressed seasonal and sexual differences. Stomach and fecal samples were collected from June through October 1998. Although males and females consumed similar taxa, there were monthly dietary differences likely, in part, because of sexual differences in peak activity and reproductive conditions. Patterns of consumption suggest that Stinkpots are omnivorous but show some dietary preferences.

We studied 20 nesting female Caiman latirostris and their clutches in Santa Fe Province, Argentina. We regressed clutch and egg parameters and hatchling size with several measurements of female size (ln-transformed) to evaluate the allometry of reproduction in the wild. Larger females produced relatively smaller clutches. Larger females produced larger eggs and hatchlings. Egg width, not length, limits egg size relative to female body size. Future studies should address the relationship between female fecundity and hatchling fitness.