Ornate Box Turtles (Terrapene ornata ornata) exist in few large, reproductive populations in Iowa. Little is known about the home range, movements, and habitat use of neonates and young turtles or how movements change during maturation. We tracked four age classes of turtles from 2011 to 2016 and calculated weekly minimum convex polygon home range, every-other-day linear distance moved, habitat, microhabitat, and vegetation cover. We divided the active season into three blocks of time based on established patterns of behavior in Ornate Box Turtles. Age was the only significant factor explaining larger home ranges in older turtles during May and June–July, but there were no significant differences during August–September. However, linear distance moved significantly increased with age during all time periods. Turtles were mainly found in prairie or shrub–prairie habitats, but older turtles were more likely to move farther away from the nesting/breeding/overwintering area. While often on the surface, all age groups were found primarily under vegetation, shrubs, or trees that provided >95% vegetation cover. We suggest that habitat management for this state-threatened species consider the diverse habitats and area needed by all age classes.

Eastern Box Turtle (Terrapene carolina) populations have declined drastically since 1970 because of continued destruction and fragmentation of their habitat. Although they are known to shift their home ranges because of environmental degradation, it is unknown how solar arrays impact Eastern Box Turtles. From 2011–2018, we collected data on Eastern Box Turtle movement and occupancy in a 79-ha solar farm. The solar farm is divided into six fenced areas, each containing wildlife openings for movement of terrestrial fauna every 23 m around the fenced solar arrays. We hypothesized that the solar arrays changed the home range sizes of turtles that interacted with the field. We fitted 41 Eastern Box Turtles with radio transmitters and tracked their locations twice per week in June–August from 2011–2018. Seventeen turtles had home ranges that overlapped with the solar arrays whereas 24 turtles had home ranges that never interacted with the solar arrays. We calculated home range sizes and tested for differences between overlapping and nonoverlapping groups. We further considered if the number of observations within the solar farm impacted home range size and displacement. We found that Eastern Box Turtles that used the solar farm exhibited 55–83% larger home ranges on average than turtles in natural habitats, but there was no significant association of home range size with the amount of time observed within the solar farm. Finally, we discuss strategies to mitigate negative impacts of solar farm development on turtles.

Monitoring populations of cryptic reptiles is challenging because of their crypticity. Occupancy monitoring is a useful technique for local populations, but seasonal unavailability for detection can result in large swings in apparent annual occupancy. We used data from 5 yr of occupancy surveys, and the observed sampling and process error, to evaluate the power to detect true change in occupancy under a range of sampling scenarios and occupancy trends for a cryptic reptile, Mojave Desert Tortoise (Gopherus agassizii) None of the sampling strategies that we tested had the power to detect a 1% per annum increase in true occupancy over a 10-yr period and required ≥70 sites to detect a 1% decline in occupancy. For a 2% per annum change in true occupancy, 50 sites were needed and for a 3–4% per annum change 20–30 sites were needed. Power to detect a 4% per annum decline in occupancy was >80% for all number of secondary visits and number of sites if the number of sites was ≥50, but required seven visits to ≥60 sites to detect a 4% increase in occupancy Multiple sampling designs provided equivalent power. For example, both designs of 80 sites with three secondary visits and 50 sites with seven secondary visits yielded >50% power on average to detect 1–4% per annum changes in true occupancy. These results can help local managers of Mojave Desert Tortoises and other cryptic reptiles to design optimally efficient occupancy monitoring strategies.

Most of the literature on the basic ecology of Texas Horned Lizards (Phrynosoma cornutum) cites “cryptic color pattern” as their first line of defense against predation, and yet the degree to which Texas Horned Lizards color match their backgrounds has never been quantified. Several zoos and state wildlife agencies are releasing captive-bred and translocated lizards to parts of their former range. Background color matching may be important to consider when moving lizards into a new habitat where predation may be higher if they are not closely color matched to the local soils. We asked whether lizards more closely match their local soil colors and sun-bleached plant stems than soils and stems from other areas. We found that lizards more closely match their local soil colors than they do the soil colors of other areas and that their vertebral white stripe matches sun-bleached plant stems more than other objects in their environment. We also present background color-matching variation for this taxon in Texas, New Mexico, and Mexico from in situ photos taken, as found, in the wild. We suggest that zoos and wildlife agencies score coloration in their captive populations of lizards, thus possibly enabling these institutions to objectively consider color matching a priori as an applied conservation strategy to potentially increase the survival of reintroduced Texas Horned Lizards.

Population declines and extinctions associated with infectious diseases of wildlife are increasing in both frequency and severity. Response to infectious disease varies among species and individuals, with some appearing asymptomatic and others experiencing rapid mortality. The amphibian chytrid fungus, Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (Bd), has been associated with widespread population declines and species extinctions, yet in some geographic regions it elicits a range of sublethal responses that may influence population dynamics in ways that are currently not understood. Our central objective was to evaluate growth and feeding behavior of terrestrial juvenile American Toads (Anaxyrus americanus) and Northern Leopard Frogs (Lithobates pipiens) following exposure to Bd. We manipulated foraging effort through the presence or absence of refugia for prey. We found that both amphibian species grew less when exposed to the pathogen, though the mechanisms contributing to this effect appear not to be the same. American Toads ate equal to or more in feeding trials when exposed to Bd than when unexposed, yet those exposed to Bd still experienced growth limitations. Conversely, Northern Leopard Frogs consumed the same quantity of food no matter their exposure status, but refugia presence had an effect on feeding. These results suggest that sublethal effects of disease can have ecologically relevant impacts in amphibians that can result in reduced size, likely because of high metabolic costs of disease response. Size is both a predictor of time to reproduction and fecundity, and reductions in individual growth may have important consequences for populations.

We observed overwintering behavior of bimodally respiring hatchling Smooth Softshell Turtles, Apalone mutica, in two small outdoor ponds that differed in depth. Hatchlings buried themselves shallowly in a sand/mud substrate at the bottom of the ponds. In the deep pond, hatchlings periodically raised and lowered the posterior portion of their body into the water column in a respiratory “pushup” fashion. In the shallow pond, hatchlings did not perform pushups nor snorkel to breathe air. Pushups were similar in appearance and form among turtles but occurred with variable frequency within and among individual turtles. Pushup frequency of hatchling A. mutica was 43% slower than reported for larger A. mutica.

Habitat loss, degradation, and modification are important drivers of global population declines in amphibians. Most amphibians have a biphasic lifestyle and are susceptible to threats in both aquatic and terrestrial habitats. Eastern Tiger Salamanders (Ambystoma tigrinum tigrinum) are endangered throughout much of their range in the eastern United States, including Maryland and Delaware. Ambystoma t. tigrinum breed in ephemeral freshwater ponds and then migrate into the surrounding terrestrial environment after metamorphosis. Limited research exists about what habitat characteristics play a role in breeding pond use. We sought to understand what features of the breeding pond and surrounding landscape influence abundance and occupancy. We measured salamander occupancy, salamander abundance, and water quality parameters at ponds during the 2018 and 2019 breeding seasons. We used geographic information systems to determine pond area and the percentage of forest area and road density surrounding a pond at four spatial scales. Pond occupancy by A. t. tigrinum was positively associated with increased depth and less forest cover at the largest spatial scales. Abundance of A. t. tigrinum was greatest in larger, deeper ponds, potentially because these factors increase hydroperiod. More basic pH and decreased conductivity were also associated with higher male salamander abundances in ponds. Forest area and road density were not in the top-ranked model, although we note that ponds in this study had a minimum of 70% forest area within 150 m. Our findings elucidate relationships between A. t. tigrinum and their habitat, providing knowledge for future management of this state-endangered species.

Coastal Tailed Frogs (Ascaphus truei) range across the Pacific Northwest from northern California, USA, into British Columbia, Canada, and from sea level to >2,131 m. Previous work has shown a variable larval period but has not clearly separated elevational from latitudinal effects. Therefore, we examined size at beginning of metamorphosis, larval period, individual growth rates, and timing of metamorphosis of A. truei populations along an elevational gradient from 152 to 2,131 m across a small latitudinal range (29 km) to reduce potential latitudinal effects, all within the Klamath Mountains of northern California. We sampled larvae at 15 study sites, of which we used 6 sites as intensive capture–mark–recapture (CMR) locations, and the other 9 for supplemental data on larval period and size at metamorphosis. In CMR sites, we individually marked tadpoles to determine within-season growth rates. We found that the A. truei larval period in these populations ranges from 2 yr in low and middle elevations to ‡3 yr in high-elevation populations. We also found decreased size at beginning of metamorphosis and increased growth rates of tadpoles with increasing elevation. Our high-elevation populations had the longest larval period documented in California. The associations of growth and timing of metamorphosis to elevation in A. truei populations suggest that responses to changing climate may differ across elevations.

Crocodilians occupy diverse aquatic and riparian habitats, and through their movements and ontogenetic niche shifts, link the flow of energy and nutrients between aquatic and terrestrial food webs. We analyzed the trophic ecology of African dwarf crocodiles Osteolaemus tetraspis and O. osborni at one site for each species in Cameroon by analyzing carbon and nitrogen stable isotope ratios. We hypothesized that Osteolaemus species inhabiting a perennial river would be primarily associated with aquatic food webs, whereas those inhabiting a small ephemeral stream would assimilate significant fractions of terrestrial-derived material into their biomass. We also hypothesized that Osteolaemus species would undergo ontogenetic trophic shifts, including changes in vertical trophic position (TP). We found that crocodiles in both systems assimilated material from both terrestrial and aquatic-based food chains, and therefore provide a trophic link between habitats. In the perennial river, aquatic gastropods, fish, and amphibians were estimated to have higher maximum feasible contributions to crocodile biomass than terrestrial invertebrates. Prey contributions to crocodile biomass in the ephemeral stream could not be estimated because model results suggested that at least one important prey had not been sampled. Even though isotopic overlap was high between juveniles and adults, and between sexes, ontogenetic shifts in TP were apparent in both Osteolaemus populations.

We describe a new spotted species of ground-dwelling gecko of the genus Cyrtodactylus (Geckoella) from coastal Kerala, southwestern India, by using an integrative taxonomic approach. The new species is a member of the C. collegalensis species complex, with 10.0–13.5% uncorrected mitochondrial sequence divergence from the other six members of the C. collegalensis complex. The new species is also recognized in tree-based delimitation methods and can be morphologically diagnosed by a spotted dorsal pattern of four to six pairs of spots (occasionally fused into figure 8–shaped markings) from the banded species C. speciosus, C. rishivalleyensis, and C. yakhuna and from the spotted C. collegalensis, C. srilekhae, and C. varadgirii by the presence of a few scattered enlarged dorsal scales. This is the only Indian member of the C. collegalensis complex with a relatively broad distribution at low elevations, other than C. varadgirii from western India (distributed in Maharashtra, southern Gujarat, and western Madhya Pradesh). The sister species to the new species is the Sri Lankan C. yakhuna, which is a banded form from low elevations. The new species is the second gecko to have been described from Chengodumala and endemic to northern and central Kerala, highlighting the importance of this area, which is under increasing anthropogenic pressure. We also provide notes on the dorsal pholidosis of C. rishivalleyensis, which was overlooked in its original description.

Nearly all studies of lizard behavior have been conducted on adults. Therefore, an important part of the lizard life cycle has been overlooked, the neonate stage. Lizards hatch at about the same time, briefly causing high density and increased chances that neonates engage in aggressive encounters. We studied the behavior of neonate Little Brown Skinks (Scincella lateralis) by staging a series of dyadic encounters between pairs of neonates in the laboratory. Two neonates were confined in an observation chamber on either side of a partition for 48 h. The partition was then removed, a single retreat was placed in the center of the observation chamber, and the behavior of the two neonates was recorded for 60 min. Neonate Little Brown Skinks almost never showed aggressive behaviors, such as biting and chasing, exhibited by adults. Neonates segregated themselves on opposite sides of the observation chamber when active on the surface, but frequently simultaneously occupied the retreat, something that almost never happens in adults. Limited data on species of skinks that form stable aggregations suggest that retreat sharing by neonates or juveniles may be common in members of the Scincidae.

Prairie habitat loss in the United States has led to population declines in many prairie-associated species, including Ornate Box Turtles (Terrapene ornata). Northwest Arkansas is an intergrade zone between the prairie-dwelling T. ornata and the more forest-associated Three-Toed Box Turtle (Terrapene carolina). As such, limited information exists on the potential differences in physiology and thermal ecology between the two box turtle species and how those differences might influence their habitat use. We addressed gaps in our knowledge of the thermal and spatial ecology of T. ornata and T. carolina with a three-part study. First, we compared the thermal profiles of refugia, open, and vegetated microhabitats across degraded prairie, restored prairie, and adjacent forest macrohabitats using operative temperature models and a linear mixed effect model. Second, we measured total evaporative water loss of both species across a range of body sizes. Finally, we fitted a subset of turtles with iButton data loggers and monitored them in the field to examine carapace temperatures and habitat use. Operative temperature models recorded high, largely homogeneous temperatures across microhabitats in degraded prairie and heterogeneous temperatures across restored prairie microhabitats, while forest habitat maintained stable, cool temperatures. Both species exhibited similar evaporative water loss rates; however, T. ornata experienced a broader range of temperatures in the field. Terrapene ornata were exclusively found in prairie habitat, whereas T. carolina was often found in forested habitats and subsurface refugia. Our results demonstrate key differences in box turtle thermal biology and highlight suboptimal thermal characteristics in degraded prairie and forest habitat that should be considered in prairie restoration and management for T. ornata conservation.

Many previous studies on competition focused on outcomes of competition and less on behavioral changes during or immediately following intra- or interspecific interactions. I performed 300 h of observation of three lizard species (Side-blotched Lizards, Uta stansburiana; Sagebrush Lizards, Sceloporus graciosus; Western Fence Lizards, Sceloporus occidentalis) and recorded 1,045 natural encounters, 403 of which were unconfounded by presence of another individual lizard. Despite potential competition amongst these species, I found little evidence that Uta modify perch characteristics or engage in aggressive interactions toward either of the heterospecific lizards. However, Uta do alter interspecific display behavior depending on whether interactions are intrasexual or intersexual. Moreover, Uta move shorter distances following interactions with S. graciosus but greater distances after interactions with S. occidentalis. Uta appear to reserve aggressive or more-intense interactions for intersexual intraspecific encounters, most of which are initiated by males. Together these findings suggest that these three lizard species are not broadly engaged in competitive interactions and that habitat characteristics or microhabitat preferences enable co-occurrence.

Spectacled Cobras (Naja naja) and Oriental Ratsnakes (Ptyas mucosa) frequently share habitats and presumably occupy a similar trophic niche. We present a dietary synopsis of both species as well as niche metrics based on feeding events retrieved from crowdsourced data. Our analysis suggests a high importance of ophiophagy in the diet of N. naja, which occasionally feeds on mammals and frogs, but rarely on other taxa. Ptyas mucosa preyed most frequently on frogs and occasionally on snakes and mammals. The relative importance of shared prey items was generally high and confirmed overlap of their trophic niches. Interspecific trophic competition could serve as a noninvasive conservation tool. In particular, adult N. naja may avoid areas in which size-equivalent or size-superior P. mucosa are present, potentially offering new perspectives on common conservation practices for this medically significant snake. Methodological biases because of low detection probability of subterranean predation events and a bias in ophiophagous events in data retrieved from social media cannot be ruled out. Two key issues need to be considered when using crowdsourced data to assess trophic niche partitioning: 1) choosing an appropriate level of prey identification as a base for meaningful comparison and 2) ensuring relative spatial homogeneity of data origins over the common range. When considering the trade-off between data quality and quantity for comparative analysis, crowdsourcing is a valuable but supplementary resource for studies of niche partitioning in sympatric species. The presented data expand the known dietary spectrum of both snake species by 42 previously unpublished trophic interactions.

Fire shapes habitats and therefore influences the genetic characteristics of populations. Florida scrub is a fire-dependent habitat with several precinctive species, including Florida Scrub Lizards (Sceloporus woodi). Fire history of scrub patches could affect the movement patterns of Florida Scrub Lizards, thereby altering the genetic characteristics of local populations. We characterized the effect of time since fire (TSF) on genetic diversity and differentiation at 6 microsatellite loci in the Florida Scrub Lizard (n = 413) collected from 17 sites in Highlands County, Florida. Private allelic richness was positively correlated with TSF (r = 0.56, P = 0.009). In sites with a TSF of 3–17 yr, TSF was negatively correlated with expected heterozygosity (r = -0.90, P = 0.009), inbreeding (r = -0.77, P = 0.04), allelic richness (r = -0.79, P = 0.03), and private allelic richness (r = -0.80, P = 0.03); TSF was positively correlated with mean pairwise relatedness (r = 0.85, P = 0.02). Therefore, a consequence of TSF is short-term change to local population genetics that is likely precipitated by responses of Florida Scrub Lizards to habitat modification. At a TSF of >20 yr, TSF and genetic diversity were not correlated, indicating that factors other than fire shape genetic diversity in long-unburned locations. We detected genetic differentiation using Bayesian clustering and estimates of F-statistics. Our results highlight the importance of consistent fire regimes in the Florida scrub on the genetic diversity of Florida Scrub Lizards. The presence of Florida Scrub Lizard populations in long-unburned sites, however, warrants further investigation.