The role of pathogens in the population dynamics of some mammals was considered and rejected as unimportant in the mid-20th century. In recent decades, exploration of interactions between mammals and their pathogens and of the importance of those interactions for population, community, and ecosystem dynamics has undergone a renaissance. This paper briefly introduces the topics discussed in this Special Feature and their importance in mammalian biology.

Parasites and pathogens are a fundamental driving force in the ecology and evolution of mammalian populations, and understanding disease processes in natural populations is an urgent priority in the face of increased rates of infectious disease emergence. In this review, we argue that mammalogists are uniquely placed to contribute to addressing these challenges because in-depth knowledge of mammal species is fundamental to the development of wild model systems that could accelerate discovery in disease ecology. The use of animal models—species for which a broad range of diagnostic, molecular, and genetic tools have been developed—in tightly controlled laboratory environments has been instrumental in driving progress in the biomedical sciences. However, in natural populations, disease processes operate in the context of enormous genetic, phenotypic, and environmental variability. Understanding diseases in animal populations (including humans) thus requires investment in “wild animal models” that explicitly include individual variation and relevant environmental gradients. Wild mammal groups such as primates and rodents have already been identified as potentially useful models of infectious diseases in the wild. Here, we discuss the enormous potential that ungulates hold as candidates for wild model systems. The diversity, broad geographic distribution, and often high abundance of species in this group make them a highly accessible target for disease research. Moreover, a depth of background knowledge, close relationships to domesticated animals, and ongoing management of many wild ungulate species provide context, tools, and opportunity for cutting-edge research at the interface of ecological and biomedical sciences. Studies of wild ungulates are already helping to unravel some key challenges in infectious disease research, including the role of parasites in trophic cascades, the consequences of climate change for disease dynamics, and the systems biology of host—parasite interactions. Other areas where ungulate studies may provide new insight include research on the sources and drivers of emerging infectious diseases.

In social species, individuals contact members of the same group much more often than those of other groups, particularly for contacts that could directly transmit disease agents. This disparity in contact rates violates the assumptions of simple disease models, hinders disease spread between groups, and could decouple disease transmission from population density. Social behavior of white-tailed deer has important implications for the long-term dynamics and impact of diseases such as bovine tuberculosis and chronic wasting disease (CWD), so expanding our understanding of their social system is important. White-tailed deer form matrilineal groups, which inhabit stable home ranges that overlap somewhat with others—a pattern intermediate between mass-action and strict territoriality. To quantify how group membership affects their contact rates and document the spectrum of social affiliation, we analyzed location data from global positioning system (GPS) collars on female and juvenile white-tailed deer in 2 study areas: near Carbondale in forest-dominated southern Illinois (2002–2006) and near Lake Shelbyville in agriculture-dominated central Illinois (2006–2009). For each deer dyad (i.e., 2 individual deer with sufficient overlapping GPS data), we measured space-use overlap, correlation of movements, direct contact rate (simultaneous GPS locations < 10 m apart), and indirect contact rate (GPS locations < 10 m apart when offset by 1 or 3 days). Direct contact rates were substantially higher for within-group dyads than between-group dyads, but group membership had little apparent effect on indirect contact rates. The group membership effect on direct contact rates was strongest in winter and weakest in summer, with no apparent difference between study areas. Social affiliations were not dichotomous, with some deer dyads showing loose but positive affiliation. Even for obvious within-group dyads, their strength of affiliation fluctuated between years, seasons, and even days. Our findings highlight the poor fit between deer behavior and simple models of disease transmission and, combined with previous infection data, suggest that direct contact is the primary driver of CWD transmission among free-living female and juvenile white-tailed deer.

The complexity of a community can play a fundamental role in the prevalence of pathogens by altering interactions among hosts and pathogen transmission. Information on the frequency of contacts between individuals and the distribution of contact rates in a population is critical to predicting pathogen prevalence. However, contact rates are notoriously difficult to document especially in small, nocturnal species. We have been documenting the contact rates of deer mice (Peromyscus maniculatus) in nature with respect to infection with Sin Nombre virus (SNV), a zoonotic pathogen, and the biodiversity of the mammalian community. Our long-term field studies, as well as those of others, revealed that prevalence of SNV in deer mice is related to the complexity of the mammalian community such that pathogen prevalence is lower in more diverse communities. Using a combination of techniques, we found evidence that contact rates between deer mice differ with respect to biodiversity. Deer mice in more complex communities had fewer intraspecific interactions than those in less diverse communities. Contact rates of individual deer mice were highly variable with a minority of the deer mice accounting for a majority of the interactions. Infection with SNV was related to risk-taking behavior; animals categorized as “bold” were 3 times more likely to be infected than “shy” deer mice. Results of these studies have implications for pathogen management in wildlife and humans.

Phylogenetic relationships among the 6 species of quolls (Dasyurus) are resolved using DNA sequences from 4 mitochondrial and 5 nuclear loci (approximately 15 kb) sampled from 1 to 29 individuals per species. Our estimate of quoll phylogeny concurs with previous DNA-based estimates in placing Dasyurus hallucatus as sister to the remaining species, and D. maculatus as sister to a clade containing D. viverrinus, D. albopunctatus, D. geoffroii D. spartacus. We also provide the first formal description of penis anatomy in the northern quoll (D. hallucatus), documenting it as the only species of Dasyurus lacking an appendage to the penis. This appendage thus appears to constitute a morphological synapomorphy for the clade of 5 species that excludes D. hallucatus. The sequence from our single specimen of bronze quoll (D. spartacus) nested within a clade of 3 western quoll (D. geoffroii) sequences, suggesting that the species boundary between these groups (if it exists) is not yet reflected in reciprocal monophyly of mitochondrial haplotypes. Any genetic differences found between eastern and western forms of D. geoffroii would have implications for translocations of western animals into other parts of the species range.

The Asiatic wild dog or dhole (Cuon alpinus) is an endangered, yet little-studied, species throughout its range in Nepal. We examined habitat selection and diet of the dholes by searching for dholes in the Dhorpatan Hunting Reserve (DHR), the only hunting reserve in Nepal, and developed a habitat selection model to determine their habitat preferences. We also collected anecdotal data on depredation events and attitudes toward the dholes from 89 local people. We collected each dhole scat encountered and conducted dietary analysis to calculate the percent frequency of occurrence of each prey item and to estimate the biomass consumed by dholes in the study area. The dholes used most habitat types and targeted a wide range of prey species and sizes, but avoided barren land, Juniperus spp. — and Abies spp.—dominated forests, and habitat under anthropogenic pressure. Eighty percent of the dhole's diet was represented by wild prey species; blue sheep (Pseudois nayaur) comprised 13.9% and livestock comprised 20% of the diet. The consumption of livestock has led to a negative attitude of local people toward dhole conservation. As blue sheep are the main trophy hunting species of the DHR, there is also the potential for competition between hunters and dhole, and other predators, for blue sheep. Our habitat selection model will be useful for estimating the probability of occurrence of this species within similar regions. These findings provide baseline information for authorities responsible for preparing conservation action plans for this species and managing the co-existence of humans and dholes within the reserve.

Morphological identification of prey fragments in vampire bat feces is impossible because of an exclusively blood-based diet. Therefore, studies of their foraging ecology require innovative approaches. We investigated the diet of Desmodus rotundus using a PCR-restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) molecular method by amplifying the cytochrome b mitochondrial gene (380 bp) from DNA fecal samples collected from captive bats fed with blood from chickens, cattle, pigs, dogs, and humans—the 5 most frequently attacked prey species in rural areas of the Brazilian Amazonia. The prey preference of the vampire bat was investigated in 18 riverine villages, where the availability of domestic animals to bats was quantified. Prey DNA amplified from fecal samples exhibited no visible signals of vampire bat DNA. A PCR—RFLP flowchart and a combination of 2 DNA restriction enzymes allowed the direct identification of prey to species level. The enzymes' restriction profile did not overlap with those of vampire bats or wild mammal and avian species. Chickens were the most attacked prey species (61.4% of the identifications, n = 27), but pigs were highly preferred in relation to prey availability. This suggests a preference for mammalian blood in D. rotundus diet, with chickens exploited as a secondary food source. No wild vertebrate species was identified in the fecal samples, indicating that vampire bats are selectively feeding on the blood of domesticated animals, probably because they are more predictable and easily accessed resources.

We documented nightly movements of Hawaiian hoary bats (Lasiurus cinereus semotus) on the island of Hawai'i. Based on data from 28 radiotagged individuals mean foraging range (FR) was 230.7 ± 72.3 ha, core-use area (CUA) was 25.5 ± 6.9 ha (or 11.1% of mean FR), and the mean long axis (LAX) across the FR was 3,390.8 ± 754.3 m. There was almost no overlap in CUAs among 4 adult males having overlapping foraging areas and tracked simultaneously or within a 90-day window of each other. CUAs of subadults partially overlapped with multiple adult males or with one other subadult. High variance in FRs, cores use areas, and LAX across the FR perhaps reflect localized stochastic variables such as weather, habitat, and food resources. Hawaiian hoary bats use moderately large FRs among insectivorous bats studied with comparable methodologies; however, foraging activity indicated by documentation of acoustic feeding buzzes is concentrated within one or a few disjunct areas cumulatively forming the 50% fixed kernel of CUA. The concentration of feeding activity, low values of individual overlap, and agonistic chasing behavior within CUAs all demonstrate a structured use of individual space by Hawaiian hoary bats.

Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of the American Society of Mammalogists. This work is written by (a) US Government employee(s) and is in the public domain in the US.

Striped skunks (Mephitis mephitis) act as reservoirs of many zoonotic diseases and are highly adept at persisting in urbanized landscapes in high densities. A better understanding of the interaction between skunks and the urban environment can aid in the development of management approaches to disease outbreaks, as well as provide information on wildlife responses to urbanization-induced habitat fragmentation. We studied the genetic structure of a population of striped skunks in an urban environment, assessing the presence of subpopulation structuring, sex-biased philopatry, and natal habitat—biased dispersal. Analysis of microsatellite data failed to detect any significant population clustering or evidence of natal habitat—biased dispersal, but spatial autocorrelation analyses did reveal patterns of limited dispersal (< 2 km) and suggest female-biased philopatry. Our results suggest that urban habitats provide few barriers to gene flow in striped skunks.

Feral cats, Felis catus, inhabiting San Clemente Island, California, are both predators and competitors of multiple sympatric endemic species. To improve our understanding and management of these invasive predators, we used GPS-equipped radiocollars to track 11 (6F:5M) cats for a total of 3,108 days, resulting in 15,419 GPS locations. Average 100% minimum convex polygon, 95% kernel density, and 50% kernel density estimates were 229, 132, and 33 ha, respectively. The point estimate for average male home-range size was larger than the average for females, but there was substantial variation among individuals of both sexes. Overlap indices indicated similar usage areas during nocturnal and diurnal time periods. Sample size limited our ability to definitively detect habitat preference, but data suggested areas within 50 m of roads were avoided, and that thicker land cover was preferred over open grasslands. Three test collars deployed within active cat home ranges indicated GPS locations were precise, with 96% of locations having < 10-m error estimates, and that horizontal dilution of precision indices were not useful in screening data. Our results describe feral cat spatial ecology on a semiarid island and can be used to inform population estimation, control, and mitigation programs.

Gut microbes can largely influence the ecology and evolution of mammalian hosts. As research in this area increases, it will be necessary to collect fecal samples from nature to inventory microbial populations. Here, we tested the appropriateness of using feces collected from live-traps for microbiome studies. We found that feces collected from the traps containing the desert woodrat (Neotoma lepida) did not differ from aseptically collected feces in terms of microbial community structure, abundances of bacterial phyla, or measurements of α-diversity. Roughly 83% of the microbes in trap-collected feces represented the endogenous microbiota. Thus, we suggest that feces collected from small mammal traps are acceptable for studying the microbiota of wild, small mammals.

Trinomys eliasi is an endangered species of spiny rat endemic to a small area in the lowlands of Rio de Janeiro state (Brazil). Limited data on its biology and variation are available for designing conservation policies. Here, we provide data on genetic variation of T. eliasi, elucidating aspects of its evolutionary differentiation based on analysis of cytochrome b DNA. Our findings showed that T. eliasi diverged from its sister species T. paratus in the early Pleistocene or late Pliocene (∼2.5 million years ago [mya]). Two T. eliasi mitochondrial lineages diverged in the early Pleistocene (∼2.1 mya) and are currently separated by a large river and Holocene areas previously occupied by a vast Pleistocene internal sea, which may have operated as a historical barrier between populations. The haplotypes of the southern lineage diverged relatively late in the Pleistocene (∼0.6 mya), and diversity of this lineage is not equally distributed across the landscape, but rather, it appears to be concentrated in the rainiest areas, which contain major forest remnants. This region should be considered a priority for conservation. In the northern extreme of Rio de Janeiro state, we found an isolated, highly divergent T. eliasi lineage, which deserves further investigation. This work highlights the need for fine-scale studies of genetic variation in endangered species for the preservation of their evolutionary diversity.

Fire is a natural, dynamic process that is integral to maintaining ecosystem function. The reintroduction of fire (e.g., prescribed fire, managed wildfire) is a critical management tool for protecting many frequent-fire forests against stand-replacing fires while restoring an essential ecological process. Understanding the effects of fire on forests and wildlife communities is important in natural resource planning efforts. Small mammals are key components of forest food webs and essential to ecosystem function. To investigate the relationship of fire to small mammal assemblages, we live trapped small mammals in 10 burned and 10 unburned forests over 2 years in the central Sierra Nevada, California. Small mammal abundance was higher in unburned forests, largely reflecting the greater proportion of closed-canopy species such as Glaucomys sabrinus in unburned forests. The most abundant species across the entire study area was the highly adaptable generalist species, Peromyscus maniculatus. Species diversity was similar between burned and unburned forests, but burned forests were characterized by greater habitat heterogeneity and higher small mammal species evenness. The use and reintroduction of fire to maintain a matrix of burn severities, including large patches of unburned refugia, creates a heterogeneous and resilient landscape that allows for fire-sensitive species to proliferate and, as such, may help maintain key ecological functions and diverse small mammal assemblages.

Kin selection theory predicts that under certain conditions animals will tolerate related individuals in their home ranges. We examined the relationship between spatiotemporal overlap and genetic relatedness in ocelots (Leopardus pardalis) to determine if kin selection plays a role in structuring ocelot populations. We used 3 years of camera trapping to examine the spatial organization of an ocelot population on Barro Colorado Island in Panama. We also placed camera traps on ocelot latrines to match photographs of individual ocelots with microsatellite genotypes from feces. Strengths of spatiotemporal overlap between individual ocelots were calculated using a half-weight association index based on how often individuals were photographed at the same camera within 30 days of one another. We calculated relatedness between individuals based on 11 variable microsatellite loci. Male ocelots overlapped with ≤ 11 females, and females overlapped with ≤ 7 males. We detected no clear evidence of strict intersexual territoriality in either sex. Mean overlap among males was more than 5 times greater than overlap among females; however, spatiotemporal overlap was strong between some female pairs. Overall, overlapping individuals were more related to one another than was the sample population as a whole, consistent with the hypothesis that kin selection influences ocelot spatial organization. This finding was driven by relatedness among overlapping females, and by relatedness among overlapping individuals of opposite sex, but not by overlapping males.

Mixed-species associations generally form to increase foraging success or to aid in the detection and deterrence of predators. While mixed-species associations are common among mammals, those involving carnivorous predators and potential prey species are seldom reported. On the Guassa Plateau, in the Ethiopian highlands, we observed solitary Ethiopian wolves (Canis simensis) foraging for rodents among grazing gelada monkey (Theropithecus gelada) herds. The tolerant and sometimes prolonged (> 1 h) associations contrasted with the defensive behaviors exhibited by geladas toward other potential predators. Ethiopian wolves spent a higher proportion of time foraging and preyed more successfully on rodents when among geladas than when alone, providing evidence that gelada herds increase the vulnerability of subterranean rodents to predation. Ethiopian wolves appear to habituate gelada herds to their presence through nonthreatening behavior, thereby foregoing opportunistic foraging opportunities upon vulnerable juvenile geladas in order to feed more effectively on rodents. For Ethiopian wolves, establishing proximity to geladas as foraging commensals could be an adaptive strategy to elevate foraging success. The novel dynamics documented here shed light on the ecological circumstances that contribute to the stability of mixed groups of predators and potential prey.

Identification of predators from saliva traces on game species and/or livestock kills is gaining increasing importance in wildlife management, particularly in areas where direct wildlife—human conflicts regularly occur. When the noninvasive sampling of hairs and scats is difficult, as with rare and elusive predators, saliva samples constitute a potentially useful source of DNA. To test the feasibility of this approach in obtaining an accurate genotype of the predator, we applied an experimental approach. Captive wolves (Canis lupus) and lynxes (Lynx lynx) were allowed to feed on freshly killed roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) pieces for 1 min. After removal, pieces were sampled for saliva traces after 1, 24, and 48 h. Microsatellite analysis revealed that error rates and amplification failure increased sharply over time. While samples collected after 1 and 24 h yielded > 83% complete genotypes, values dropped to < 50% for samples collected after 48 h, of which 7% were incorrect even when consensus genotypes from 9 polymerase chain reactions were obtained. Our results stress the importance of rapid sampling after carcass detection, as well as implementing a multiple-tubes approach when using microsatellite markers for genetic predator identification based on saliva traces.

Differential reproductive success commonly reflects variations in reproductive physiology, behavior, and morphology. In some species, competition among males results in the evolution of alternative reproductive tactics that confer a fitness advantage relating to social status, density, or myriad other factors. In the Cape ground squirrel (Xerus inauris), a species that is highly competitive but lacks typical mammalian aspects of intrasexual competition (e.g., territoriality and aggression), 2 alternative reproductive tactics occur relating to dispersal. While physiological and behavioral differences have been demonstrated between dispersed males and males that delay dispersal, we used microsatellite markers to quantify variations in reproductive success between tactics. We found that dispersed males are in better body condition with larger home ranges likely allowing greater encounter frequencies with estrous females. However, we found no difference in copulation frequency between tactics, and the decision to delay dispersal does not preclude reproduction. Over 70% of males did not sire any offspring, yet the average number of offspring sired was equal between tactics. Thus, all males are equally likely of copulating, but paternity is strongly skewed toward a few males regardless of tactic. Natal philopatry may be a condition-dependent tactic that does not reduce reproductive success.

Habitat change due to resort development threatens rare and endemic fauna of alpine and subalpine regions. There is an urgent need to understand species persistence in such areas. The broad-toothed rat (Mastacomys fuscus) is a rare, specialist species found in alpine and subalpine regions of Australia. We conducted fecal pellet surveys in an alpine resort to determine the species' distribution and habitat requirements. Eight individuals were radiotracked to investigate movement patterns and habitat use. Fecal pellets were found in areas of dense vegetation cover up to 1 m above ground. Home ranges were small (1,488–6,106 m²) and encompassed managed indigenous vegetation on or beside ski runs. Five individuals regularly crossed a narrow (3–5 m) cleared track. Two adult males dispersed (including traversing a wide grassy ski run) up to 1 km. The ability to cross modified areas and move throughout the landscape is proposed as a key factor facilitating the persistence of M. fuscus in the resort. Enhancing the capacity of species to move between habitat patches should be incorporated into alpine resort management plans. Such management will become increasingly important as anthropogenic disturbance increases in alpine regions.

Substrate use and locomotory behavior of mammals are typically reflected in external characteristics of the forefeet, such as the relative proportions of the digits and claws. Although skeletal anatomy of the forefeet can be more informative than external characters, skeletons remain rare in systematic collections. This is particularly true for the Myosoricinae (Eulipotyphla: Soricidae), a small clade of African shrews that includes both ambulatory forest shrews (Myosorex) and semifossorial mole shrews (Surdisorex). Most species in this subfamily have restricted distributions, and their behavior and ecology are mostly unstudied. To better understand the potential range of locomotory behavior among myosoricines, we used digital x-rays to image and facilitate measuring the forefoot skeletons of 9 species. As a gauge of potential variation, we compared them with the ambulatory talpid Uropsilus (Talpidae) and the semifossorial talpid Neurotrichus. The hand morphologies of myosoricines show a graded range of potential substrate use between ambulatory and semifossorial. Some of these shrews exhibit adaptations for increased burrowing efficiency that are similar to those seen in talpids and other mammals, such as longer, broader distal phalanges and claws and shorter, wider metacarpals and proximal and middle phalanges. They also, however, have characteristics that are distinct from talpids, such as maintenance of forefoot asymmetry and an increased emphasis of ray III.

We examined the nucleotide sequences of the mitochondrial NADH dehydrogenase subunit 2 gene (976 base pairs) for 279 individuals of the sable Martes zibellina (Carnivora, Mustelidae), derived from diverse areas throughout the regions of the Ural Mountains to the Russian Far East on the Eurasian continent and the peripheral peninsula (Kamchatka) and islands (Sakhalin, Hokkaido, and southern Kurils). The demographic history of the sable and its migration history to the eastern peripheral peninsula and islands were inferred using phylogeographic approaches. The analyses confirmed the previously found major lineages for the examined sables and further identified novel sublineages. Our data also support that a lineage, which is endemic to the eastern marginal islands (Sakhalin, Hokkaido, and southern Kurils), was produced by the demographic expansion of an ancestral lineage in the Eurasian continent. The most recent common ancestor of the Sakhalin, Hokkaido, and southern Kuril sables was estimated to exist during the Late Pleistocene. We also determined that another lineage exists on Sakhalin and is shared by the Far East Primorsky population. Our results indicate multiple migration events onto Sakhalin from the continent and suggest the importance of the formation of several straits to the distribution of sable lineages. Meanwhile, Kamchatka is dominated by a sole lineage which would also have followed the demographic expansion on the Eurasian continent. The Russian Far East was indicated as the source area for lineage diversifications; in this region, genetic diversity was relatively high, which is consistent with previous studies.

The use of standard external measurements is pervasive in mammalogy, due in part to their applicability to both living and dead animals. Nevertheless, comparisons of measurements made between animals in different pre- and postmortem body states may be problematic. To investigate the impact of body state on standard measurements and their associated variances, we took 5 external measurements on 70 Mus musculus while living and in 3 postmortem body states (primary flaccidity, rigor mortis, and secondary flaccidity). Total length, tail length, and hind-foot length were significantly longer in states of primary and secondary flaccidity than when measured on live individuals or those in rigor mortis. Ear length increased from living to primary flaccidity, after which it decreased. Weight decreased between each postmortem body state, likely as an artifact of desiccation. Variance was always greater for measurements taken in the living state than during postmortem body states. Irrespective of body state, variance was particularly high for ear length and hind-foot length, which are prone to observer bias and should be used with caution. Additional tests using field-collected data from populations of Peromyscus leucopus and Peromyscus maniculatus confirmed our lab-based results from M. musculus. External measurements taken during a postmortem state should not be compared to measurements from live animals and could lead to incorrect species identification. Additionally, comparisons among individuals measured in different postmortem body states may confound efforts to assess changes in body size over space or time.

The condition of maternal female mammals greatly influences life-history characteristics of their young, but interactions between habitat and maternal condition and their combined influences on birth characteristics and survival of neonates are less well understood, especially in free-ranging populations. We monitored survival of neonatal mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus) inhabiting 2 contrasting ecotypes in Idaho: aspen woodlands (Populus tremuloides) in southeast Idaho (Caribou Mountains) and mixed-conifer grasslands (lodge-pole pine, Pinus contorta; Douglas-fir, Pseudotsuga menziesii) in central Idaho (Salmon River Mountains). We expected the Caribou Mountains to offer better forage and greater concealment cover than the Salmon River Mountains. We tested for an array of maternal influences on neonatal deer inhabiting those dissimilar ecosystems. We monitored 96 neonates from date of capture to 5 months of age (n = 44 in the Caribou Mountains, 2010; n = 52 in the Salmon River Mountains, 2011). Survival and birth characteristics consistently diverged between study areas, whereas timing of births was similar. Female deer from the Salmon River Mountains exhibited poor maternal condition and small litter sizes compared with females from the Caribou Mountains. Young from the Salmon River Mountains exhibited lower rates of growth, occupied bedding sites with less concealment cover, and subsequently experienced lower survival from birth to 5 months of age, compared with neonates from the Caribou Mountains. Cause of deaths for young mule deer on both study sites was mostly from predation. Our findings emphasize the potential role that habitat plays in the population dynamics of mule deer via cascading effects on physical condition, reproduction, and survival. Changes in habitat, potentially associated with changing climate, fire regimes, and land uses, probably have contributed to the widespread declines in populations of mule deer during recent decades.

Accurate and precise estimates of population size are critical for effective management but can be particularly difficult to achieve for small populations of large carnivores. We approached this challenge by integrating multiple noninvasive data sources into a DNA-based mark—recapture framework to estimate the abundance of the small and endangered Apennine brown bear population. To improve sample size and coverage, we collected hair samples from June to September 2011 by concurrently using 4 noninvasive sampling methods: intensive hair-snagging (forty-three 5×5-km cells and five 12-day sampling sessions) plus secondary sampling methods (bear rub trees, alpine buckthorn aggregations, and incidental sampling). Following marker selection based on tissue samples from 55 Apennine bears, we used 13 microsatellites (plus gender) and quality assurance protocols to identify multilocus genotypes from hair samples. We used Huggins closed models in program MARK to estimate population size, which allowed us to account for spatial, temporal, and demographic components of heterogeneity in secondary sampling methods. Based on 529 analyzed hair samples, 80.5% of which yielded high-confidence scores for all markers, we achieved a rather precise (CV = 7.9%) population estimate of 51 bears (95% CI = 47–66) including cubs. Compared to a previous survey in 2008, our results provide evidence that the Apennine brown bear population has not been declining in recent years. Additionally, the relatively high (closure corrected) density (39.7 bears/1,000 km²; 95% CI = 36.6–51.4) indicates that habitat productivity within the core range is currently adequate for bears and that effective conservation of this small bear population should aim to expand the bears' range across a larger portion of the central Apennines. We examined if a reduction in sampling effort would affect the precision of our population estimates. Reduced sample coverage, small sample size, and low hair-trap-capture probability preclude the adoption of a single sampling method or a subset of such to survey small bear populations if a comparable level of precision is required.

We show in the present study that variations in the rates of survival and recruitment of the agile gracile opossum (Gracilinanus agilis) are predominantly influenced by its life history instead of the variation in primary productivity that is common in the Brazilian Cerrado. For 5 years we monitored a population of G. agilis in a riparian forest running through the Cerrado and assessed the relationship between survival and breeding season, as well as the relationship between recruitment and seasons (dry and rainy). We also tested for a relationship between these rates and variations in primary productivity. The survival of males was better predicted by reproductive season than primary productivity and survival decreased after the reproductive season. Females showed a similar pattern. Our data show the reproduction of G. agilis is seasonal, with recruitment in the rainy season. The demographic analysis made in the present study suggests the adoption of a semelparous strategy in this species.

Studies on animal space use can reveal insights into how animals interact with one another and their environment. Research on the space use patterns of the endangered giant panda (Ailuropoda melanoleuca) in China has nevertheless lagged behind that of many other species, as a government moratorium prevented telemetry data collection on pandas from 1995 to 2006. We studied 5 giant pandas using GPS telemetry and estimated home ranges, core areas, and space use using model-based approaches. Home range 95% area was 6 km² for the single male studied and averaged 4.4 ± 1.2 (± SD) km² for the 4 females. Pandas occupied several small core areas that they revisited after time lags of up to several months. Pandas also displayed significant space use interactions, especially among the male and 2 different females across several weeks during a fall season, a time of year not previously thought to involve extensive inter-panda interaction.

Foraging animals must weigh the benefit of seeking food against the risk of becoming food, and the value of a given food should factor into this decision. We examined the separate and joint effects of food-safety tradeoffs and food chemistry on the foraging of free-ranging samango monkeys (Cercopithecus (nictitans) mitis erythrarchus) at Lajuma, South Africa. We conducted giving up density (GUD, the amount of food left behind by a forager) experiments with peanuts treated with secondary compounds (quebracho tannin, tannic acid, or oxalic acid) offered in safe and risky microhabitats. Effects of the compounds would manifest as higher GUDs relative to a control treatment. Moreover, secondary compounds should cause a greater increase in GUDs in the risky microhabitat. GUDs were higher in patches containing oxalic acid-treated peanuts than in patches with either of the tannin—treated or the untreated peanuts. Moreover, the samangos experienced an interaction of predation costs and secondary compounds: the GUDs on oxalates relative to control peanuts were higher in the risky microhabitat. As predicted, the samangos traded food for safety, and the effect was most pronounced when the control was paired with the least desirable food (oxalic acid). We provide evidence that the marginal value of energy is influenced by the presence of plant toxins, the predation cost of foraging, and the interaction of the two.