Landscape complexity provides opportunities for local adaptation and creates population genetic structure at limited geographic scales. We determined if fine-scale genetic structure was evident in a population of ringtails (Bassariscus astutus) inhabiting the Guadalupe Mountains, a small, isolated, and ecologically diverse mountain range in the southwest United States. We hypothesized that ringtails would exhibit either a genetic pattern of isolation by distance (IBD), because their small body size would most likely limit dispersal distances, or a pattern of isolation by resistance (IBR), because the topographical complexity of the mountain range would result in complex dispersal patterns. To investigate for the presence of fine-scale genetic structure in this population, we genotyped 153 ringtails at 15 microsatellite loci and described genetic structure using 2 Bayesian clustering techniques. Six genetic clusters were identified revealing complex spatial genetic structure within a localized geographic area. We used partial Mantel tests to test for a correlation between genetic distance and geographic distance or resistance distance but found no evidence for a genetic pattern related to IBD or IBR. We subsequently tested for an association between genetic structure and isolation by environment (IBE) using a discriminant function analysis and classified a high proportion of individuals (> 91%) to their observed genetic cluster based exclusively on landscape features. We also used a nonparametric, multivariate analysis of variance to further explore the role of land-cover type and found that plant association explained 26% of the genetic variation. These results suggest that IBE influences the genetic structure of ringtails at local geographic scales, a finding that deserves consideration in conservation planning.

Phenotypic plasticity, the ability of an individual to modify its phenotype according to the conditions it experiences, is a source of between-individual variation and a mechanism by which individuals can cope with environmental change. Plasticity is expected to evolve in response to environmental heterogeneity, such as seasonality and year-to-year variation. We aimed to characterize patterns of phenotypic change in morphological (body mass), life-history (reproductive success and litter size), and social (embeddedness) traits of female yellow-bellied marmots (Marmota flaviventris) in response to climatic and social variation. We used data collected over 36 years on a population of yellow-bellied marmots studied in Colorado. We used mixed effect models to explore phenotypically plastic responses and tested for individual variation in mean trait values (i.e., intercept) and in plasticity (i.e., slope). All examined traits were plastic, and the population's average plastic response often differed between spatially distinct colonies that varied systematically in timing of snowmelt, among age classes, and between females with different previous reproductive experiences. Moreover, we showed individual differences in June mass and pup mass plasticity. We suggest that plasticity plays a key role buffering the effects of continuous changes in environmental conditions.

In species where defense of females or resources attractive to females is not an option, males search for mates. How males locate mates is not well understood. Male white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) are assumed to search widely for females in estrus; but the rut (2–4 weeks) and estrus (1–2 days) are short and males would benefit by having a strategy to locate mates. Because females typically have small home-range sizes and exhibit site fidelity, we predicted males would spend time in small focal areas containing females during rut. We fitted 102 males with GPS collars across 5 breeding seasons in South Texas. During rut, movement rates increased but most males used a small portion (26–34%) of their home ranges. Most males had ≥ 2 small focal areas (18–33 ha) which were revisited every 20–28 h. Because estrus is ∼24 h, males may revisit focal areas to assess female receptiveness. During peak rut, 1 year olds had the lowest movement rates and rates were similar in 2- and ≥ 3-year-old males. However, most 2 year-old males exhibited Levy walks, an efficient search strategy when resources are rare. One-year-old males may not have exerted high effort, whereas most 2 year olds used a different strategy because of competition or lack of experience. Our results provide the first fine-scale description of ungulate mate-searching behavior and how spatial memory may be important for acquiring mating opportunities in species that rove for mates.

In 1933, geologist and explorer Michael Terry collected the skull of a small macropodid captured by members of his party near Lake Mackay, western Northern Territory. In 1957, this skull was described as the sole exemplar of a distinct subspecies, Bettongia penicillata anhydra, but was later synonymized with B. lesueur and thereafter all but forgotten. We use a combination of craniodental morphology and ancient mitochondrial DNA to confirm that the Lake Mackay specimen is taxonomically distinct from all other species of Bettongia and recognize an additional specimen from a Western Australian Holocene fossil accumulation. B. anhydra is morphologically and genetically most similar to B. lesueur but differs in premolar shape, rostrum length, dentary proportions, and molar size gradient. In addition, it has a substantial mitochondrial cytochrome b pairwise distance of 9.6–12% relative to all other bettongs. The elevation of this recently extinct bettong to species status indicates that Australia's mammal extinction record over the past 2 centuries is even worse than currently accepted. Like other bettongs, B. anhydra probably excavated much of its food and may have performed valuable ecological services that improved soil structure and water infiltration and retention, as well as playing an important role in the dispersal of seeds and mycorrhizal fungal spores. All extant species of Bettongia have experienced extensive range contractions since European colonization and some now persist only on island refugia. The near total loss of these ecosystem engineers from the Australian landscape has far-reaching ecological implications.

Western North America contains a mosaic of indigenous and introduced red fox (Vulpes vulpes) populations. Historically, native red foxes occurred in subalpine zones of the Cascade, Rocky, and Sierra Nevada mountain ranges, and in the desert-like Sacramento Valley of California. The origins of red foxes observed in the Intermountain West since the early 1900s are unclear, potentially representing native population relicts from the last ice age, dispersers from adjacent mountain populations, or early fur-farm escapees. These foxes carry a native 696-bp mitochondrial haplotype (A-19), which was also the most basal and widespread among western populations and thus equally consistent with ancient and contemporary origins. Here, to increase resolution, we sequenced an additional 3,308 bp (totaling 4,004bp) of the mitochondrial genome corresponding to A-19 and related haplotypes (O-24 and D-19) from historical and modern samples collected throughout western North America. The expanded sequences revealed previously undocumented haplotype diversity, including another novel mutation associated with the D-19 matriline endemic to the Sacramento Valley, confirming its ancient divergence. We observed 6 A-19 variants falling into 2 divergent subclades. Although no A-19 variants were unique to the Intermountain West, the 2 dominant ones were rare elsewhere, and an analysis of molecular variance supported the distinctiveness of this population. Our findings suggest this population was either an ancient relict or derived from a small founder group from a neighboring mountain range. Additional sampling and high-density nuclear genomic markers can further clarify origins of these animals, including potential nonnative introgression.

The Himalayan marmot (Marmota himalayana) occurs throughout the Himalayan alpine mountain ecosystem. We examined the characteristics of Himalayan marmot habitat, diet, and macronutrient consumption in the upper Mustang region of Nepal. Marmots inhabited warmer valleys close to water sources in areas between 2,900 and 4,800 m above sea level. Soil pH, organic matter, organic carbon, and phosphorus were not different in marmot use versus available habitat; however, potash levels significantly lower in marmot burrow habitat. Seventeen species of plants, including Primula spp., Potentilla fruticosa, Kobresia pygmaea, Anaphalis contorta, Lonicera spinosa, and Carex spp., were recorded in marmot scats over 3 seasons (summer 2010, autumn 2010, and spring 2011). Analysis showed a positive correlation between the total macronutrient content (dry matter protein carbohydrate fat) of plants and their occurrence in the diet. Analysis of the fiber and macronutrient balance of a limited number of plants consumed by marmots showed little difference between pre- and post-hibernation, but suggested that protein balance of foods was higher post-hibernation. Furthermore, relative frequency of plants in the diet did not reflect their abundance in the environment, suggesting active selection of plants high in total macronutrient concentration.

Rattus norvegicus (Norway rat) is one of the most abundant and geographically widespread mammals. Ecological studies focusing on urban Norway rat populations are restricted to temperate regions, and data describing populations from tropical cities are lacking. We compared the morphometrics and demographic characteristics of rats captured in urban low-income settlements in Salvador, Brazil, to a season, environmental area of capture, and sex-matched sample from Baltimore, Maryland. Norway rats of both sexes were significantly smaller in Salvador, although the threshold mass marking sexual maturity was equivalent for both cities. Pregnancy rates were comparable (∼50%); however, juveniles were commonly trapped in Salvador (20%) while they were rarely trapped in Baltimore during winter months (2%). These findings suggest that tropical and temperate rats differ with respect to body metrics, while size at sexual maturity is similar. Further studies conducted over different seasons are required before any firm conclusions are reached; however, this study provides preliminary support for Bergmann's rule that species at higher absolute latitude are larger than the same species sampled at lower latitudes.

We investigated the influence of vegetation structure and fire history on the foraging behavior of small rodents (Notomys mitchellii, Pseudomys hermannsburgensis, and Mus musculus) by conducting giving-up density (GUD) experiments in recently burnt (9–13 years since last fire) and long unburnt shrublands (> 40 years), and open and sheltered microhabitats, in a semiarid region of Western Australia. We predicted that rodents would spend less time foraging in recently burnt shrublands and open microhabitat and that the influence of microhabitat would be weaker in long unburnt compared to more recently burnt vegetation. Our findings show that fire history and microhabitat structure influence the foraging behavior of the study species and that the influence of microhabitat varies between fire histories. GUDs were higher in long unburnt vegetation and in open microhabitats. There was a microhabitat effect in recently burnt vegetation, but not in long unburnt. Rodents foraged more in sheltered microhabitats probably because predator encounters are less likely to occur there and it provides them with greater refuge from predation. The presence of a microhabitat effect in recently burnt, but not long unburnt vegetation suggests that understory vegetation density is more important in mediating predation risk than canopy density. Future studies of small mammal responses to land management actions should include behavioral, as well as population-level responses to differing fire regimes.

We conducted a mark-recapture (MR) analysis from 8 years (2005–2012) of photo-identification data collected systematically to investigate demographic parameters of a community of bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus) inhabiting the Patos Lagoon Estuary and adjacent marine coast in southern Brazil. Under the most parsimonious model of Pollock's robust design, which disregarded the effects of temporary emigration, the estimate of annual apparent survival was higher for adult females (0.97, 95% CI: 0.91–0.99) than for adult males (0.88, 95% CI: 0.75–0.94) and juveniles (0.83, 95% CI: 0.64–0.93), which may explain an observed bias in sex ratio (1 male:2 females) of known adult dolphins in this community. An increase in abundance of marked individuals was observed during the first 6 years of sampling when the number of new recruits surpassed mortality, followed by a remarkable decrease in the last 2 years when an inverse ratio of recruits/deaths occurred. Yearly changes in abundance varied from -0.1 to 0.07. Total abundance estimates were highly precise (the highest coefficient of variation was 0.053) and did not exceed 88 individuals. Abundance estimates were similar to a previous MR study conducted in the same area almost a decade earlier, suggesting a relative stable dolphin community over the last 14 years. The apparent stability in abundance, however, should be viewed with caution since this community would need a substantial mortality of at least 10% before a decline in abundance is detected with a desirable statistical power of 90%.

Indiana bats (Myotis sodalis) are capable of exploiting ephemeral resources in structurally complex, interior forests. Consequently, surveying for this species is difficult, and even in areas harboring known populations, documenting presence remains a challenge. We aimed to determine what factors affected probability of detection (p) and site occupancy (Ψ) for Indiana bats when sampling with acoustic bat detectors near an active maternity colony. From May to August 2012 and 2013, we passively sampled 71 random points near Indianapolis, Indiana, with Wildlife Acoustic SM2BAT detectors. On average, sampling occurred ∼2.2 km from maternity colony roosts, which contained ≥ 150 bats by mid-July. Habitat and landscape covariates were measured in the field or via ArcGIS. We reduced model covariates with Pearson's correlation and principal component analysis. Indiana bat calls were identified using Bat Call ID software. We used Presence 6.1 software and Akaike's Information Criteria to assess models for detectability and occupancy. Detectability of Indiana bats increased as “forest closure” and mean nightly temperature increased, likely due to reduced clutter and increased bat activity, respectively. The null model best explained Ψ, but models were likely underpowered from few Indiana bat detections. Higher rates for Ψ were observed near agricultural lands, indicating this cover type may fulfill certain habitat requirements for Indiana bats within the study site. Overall, detection rates were low even when sampling near a concentrated population on its maternity grounds, likely due to limitations inherent to bat detector technologies. Managers should be aware of the limitations of using passive acoustic sampling as a means by which to document presence—absence for this endangered species.

Deuterium oxide dilutions have long been the accepted means for collecting body condition measures on phocids. Blubber depth has become more frequently used as an indicator of health. This project represents the first in-depth examination of blubber depth measured via ultrasound as an indicator of body condition in a single species. We concurrently measured blubber depth via imaging ultrasound at 8 locations, fat and protein mass via deuterium oxide dilutions, morphometrics, and mass from wild, captive, and rehabilitating harbor seals (Phoca vitulina; n = 89). Seals ranged from premature to adult. By using body mass and blubber depth measurements we are able to predict fat and lean mass in an independent set of 187 animals (adjusted R² = 0.77 and 0.96, respectively). Although most of the ultrasound sites produced strong correlates to fat mass, an additive model incorporating body mass, 1 lateral site (L2), and 1 dorsal site (D4) provided the tightest fit.

Fire is a major form of disturbance in terrestrial ecosystems, mainly in tropical savannas. In these ecosystems, the effects of large wildfires are potentially high on small and relatively less mobile animals, like small mammals. We investigated the effects of an extensive wildfire (≈ 6,240 ha) in September 2011 on populations of 2 arborealscansorial small mammals—the gracile mouse opossum, Gracilinanus agilis, and the long-tailed climbing mouse, Rhipidomys macrurus—in 4 savanna woodland patches (1 burned, 3 unburned) of the highly threatened Brazilian Cerrado. We assessed population densities from 2009 to 2013 and for G. agilis, we estimated apparent survival and recapture probabilities with Cormack—Jolly—Seber models. Both species showed strong, negative fire responses, including sudden collapse and slow recovery (at least more than 1 year). These observed responses were probably a consequence of both the phytophysiognomic features of the habitat and severity of the fire with the resulting changes on the vertical structure of vegetation. The studied species of Cerrado forested formations were not as resilient to fire disturbance as typical species from savanna or temperate woodlands. As a consequence of human activities and climate changes, fire events are predicted to become larger and more frequent in the Brazilian Cerrado. Therefore, it is imperative to create new management strategies to protect forested physiognomies from fire, especially cerradão, which is very fire sensitive and has a limited and scattered distribution in the landscape.

The mountain beaver (Aplodontia rufa) is notably the most primitive North American rodent with a restricted distribution in the Pacific Northwest based on its physiological limits to heat stress and water needs. The Point Arena subspecies (A. r. nigra) is federally listed as endangered and is 1 of 2 subspecies that have extremely small and disjunct distributions, putting the taxon at risk from habitat loss and warming global temperatures. We sought to understand their range-wide distribution, to predict the environmental features that best describe their occurrence, and to establish a foundation for monitoring their distribution. We randomly sampled the occurrence of Point Arena mountain beavers (PAMB) from the portion of their geographic range that was accessible (public lands plus private lands where permission was granted). We surveyed 127, 25-ha sample units for their distinctive burrows and estimated the probability of detecting burrows, if they were present, at > 90% per visit. Using this information, we estimated occupancy across the accessible portion of the range to be 26.2%. Range-wide estimates of occupancy, combined with strategically selected locations where abundance and survival can be estimated noninvasively, may comprise a realistic monitoring program for this taxon. We also used the detection and nondetection locations to develop a habitat suitability model by relating these locations to remotely sensed predictors. We evaluated 53 a priori candidate habitat suitability models and the bestfitting model included gentle slopes, low terrain roughness indices, and the high density of rivers and streams. Selecting the probability value that best separated the sample units into suitable and nonsuitable habitat, we estimated a total of 70.5 km² of suitable habit, or approximately 40.4% of the original geographic range. New detections significantly expanded the known geographic range, moderating concerns about habitat loss, including that predicted by climate change. A substantial number of suitable areas were predicted to occur outside the current range. The identification of high suitability areas allows management agencies to prioritize areas for PAMB conservation planning, evaluate human impacts on habitat, and evaluate how a changing climate may affect distribution.

Population resilience in a metapopulation of American pikas (Ochotona princeps) at Bodie, California, was investigated with a series of 18 detailed occupancy surveys conducted between 1989 and 2010. These were compared with earlier 1972 and 1977 censuses and earlier historical records of pikas at Bodie. There is concern that American pikas may be increasingly vulnerable to warm temperatures due to climate change, and this investigation represents the longest study of the species in a relatively low-elevation (warm) environment. The Bodie pika population represents one of the best mammalian examples of a classic metapopulation system. Annual number of observed patch extinctions (total = 114) and recolonizations (109) varied greatly among the 18 census intervals. There has been no decline in percent of patches occupied in the northern half of the study area since 1972, and the number of documented pikas in the north in recent surveys exceeded the numbers found in 1972 and 1977. In contrast, the southern half of the metapopulation collapsed during our study, apparently the result of stochasticity of metapopulation dynamics; no southern patches were occupied after 2006. The potential impact of temperature on metapopulation dynamics was examined using long-term chronic (average summer monthly maximum) and acute threshold (number of days ≥ 25°C and ≥ 28°C within a year) temperatures. There is no evidence that warming temperatures have directly and negatively affected pika persistence at Bodie. Neither warm chronic nor acute temperatures increased the frequency of extinctions of populations on patches, and relatively cooler chronic or acute temperatures did not lead to an increase in the frequency of recolonization events. Warm temperatures, however, could have impeded the dispersal of colonists moving from north to south, thus contributing to the failure of the southern region to become repopulated.

During the austral winter, adult female southern right whales Eubalaena australis enter the South African coastal waters to give birth and raise their young. Most births take place over a 4-month period, when the females congregate in specific coastal areas or nursery grounds for up to a recorded maximum of 105 days. At this time, the density of cow—calf pairs in nursery areas can reach as high as 3.2 pairs/km² over 26 km of coastline. Although a single young is born and suckled exclusively for 7 months to a year, recent observations on nursery grounds include 3 incidents where apparently abandoned/orphaned calves-of-the-year have been seen associating with a minimum of 2–3 different cow—calf pairs over periods of 11–38 days. Attempts to suckle from these females have been noted in 2 of the cases, with the response of the female varying from extreme avoidance to apparent tolerance. In one instance where the observations of the same trio extended over 21 days, the non-offspring appeared to compete at least equally with the offspring, even though the mother directed her evasive tactics more at the non-offspring than her own calf. At the same time, both of the calves exhibited some growth in length when compared with the size of the adult female: their subsequent survival is unknown. Non-offspring nursing in monotocous species is generally rare, and the costs to the female potentially high: this is certainly the case for seasonally feeding mysticetes such as the right whale, where the costs of lactation cannot be recovered until the cow resumes feeding about 4 months after parturition. Hence, it is perhaps not surprising that these are the first recorded observations of contemporaneous nursing attempts by offspring and non-offspring calves of any mysticete.

Male-biased parasite loads are common in vertebrates, particularly in species with intense sexual selection, yet few studies have examined sex-biased parasite loads in monogamous species with low sexual selection and no differential investment in ornaments or other sexually selected traits. The circumpolar arctic fox (Vulpes lagopus) is a socially monogamous predator with low sexual selection; both parents invest heavily in their young. To determine if parasite loads (abundance and intensity) in arctic foxes vary with sex, age, or diet, we identified and enumerated parasites in arctic fox carcasses collected in winter from local trappers at Churchill, Manitoba, Canada. We measured stable isotope ratios in muscle samples as a proxy for diet. Males had more cestodes, which are only transmitted through prey, but numbers of nematodes, which are acquired by direct transmission, did not differ between sexes. δ¹⁵N values were lower in males, suggesting greater reliance on small mammals. Age did not affect diet or the number of cestodes, but the species of cestodes differed by age; for example, Echinococcus multilocularis was present only in subadults (< 1 year old). Nematodes were more abundant in subadults, likely because pups spend more time at dens in high densities, increasing exposure. Intraspecific differences in arctic fox parasites are best explained by variation in diet and foraging patterns, rather than hormone-mediated reduction in immunity. These results suggest that in monogamous species, males may not suffer compromised immunity as seen in species with strong sexual selection.

Beluga whales (Delphinapterus leucas) have a protracted nursing period estimated to last from 6–32 months, although current estimates of beluga nursing duration are derived using approaches subject to capture bias. Recent studies have shown stable isotope profiles of dentin growth layer groups (GLGs) in marine mammal teeth serve as a reliable nursing proxy and can be used to assess individual weaning patterns. We measured stable isotope ratios of nitrogen (δ¹⁵N) and carbon (δ¹³C) of dentin GLGs in teeth from eastern Canadian Arctic belugas to estimate weaning age and assess relative contributions of milk and solid food during the nursing period. δ¹⁵N declines of ∼1‰ over the first 3 GLGs of most individuals were interpreted as evidence of weaning. Individual δ¹⁵N profiles indicated 15 of 27 whales were completely weaned by the end of their 2nd year, although a number of whales were weaned by the end of their 1st or 3rd year (9 and 3, respectively). Intermediate GLG2 δ¹⁵N values relative to GLGs 1 and 3 indicated most whales consumed a mixture of milk and solid food during their 2nd year, consistent with gradual weaning. Contrary to predictions based on parental care theory, nursing duration was not related to relative GLG width (used as a proxy for somatic growth) and did not differ for females and males, or among populations. δ¹³C variation was not a reliable indicator of nursing duration, as approximately half of the whales showed no ontogenetic δ¹³C patterns across GLGs deposited over the nursing period. This study provides novel life history information, which may inform beluga conservation and management decisions, and indicates belugas share prolonged nursing duration marked by individual variation observed in other odontocetes.

Mammals use variations in the length of day to anticipate environmental changes and time their reproduction. Light pollution, which affects day length perception, could lead to changes in biological functions. To explore the effects of light pollution on seasonal reproduction, we conducted an experimental study on a strict long-day breeder, the nocturnal gray mouse lemur (Microcebus murinus). Twelve females were randomly exposed to either a moonlight treatment or a light pollution treatment for 5 weeks during the transition from a short- to long-day photoperiod. Daily rhythms of locomotor activity and core temperature were recorded, and the occurrence of estrus and urinary 17-β-estradiol concentrations were monitored. In females exposed to light pollution, the first seasonal estrus occurred while they were still in a short-day photoperiod, 2 weeks earlier than in females exposed to moonlight. Moreover, the daily rhythms profiles of females exposed to light pollution showed significant changes that mimicked long-day acclimatization. This study demonstrates that light pollution can affect daily rhythms and the timing of seasonal estrus in a primate and suggests that functional changes in the circadian system may underlie the adverse effects of light pollution that are observed in wildlife.

DNA sequence and morphometric data were used to re-evaluate the taxonomy and systematics of Peromyscus pectoralis. Phylogenetic analyses (maximum likelihood and Bayesian inference) of DNA sequences from the mitochondrial cytochrome-b gene in 44 samples of P. pectoralis indicated 2 well-supported monophyletic clades. The 1st clade contained specimens from Texas historically assigned to P. p. laceianus; the 2nd was comprised of specimens previously referable to P. p. collinus, P. p. laceianus, and P. p. pectoralis obtained from northern and eastern Mexico. Levels of genetic variation (~7%) between these 2 clades indicated that the genetic divergence typically exceeded that reported for other species of Peromyscus. Samples of P. p. laceianus north and south of the Río Grande were not monophyletic. In addition, samples representing P. p. collinus and P. p. pectoralis formed 2 clades that differed genetically by 7.14%. Multivariate analyses of external and cranial measurements from 63 populations of P. pectoralis revealed 4 morpho-groups consistent with clades in the DNA sequence analysis: 1 from Texas and New Mexico assignable to P. p. laceianus; a 2nd from western and southern Mexico assignable to P. p. pectoralis; a 3rd from northern and central Mexico previously assigned to P. p. pectoralis but herein shown to represent an undescribed taxon; and a 4th from southeastern Mexico assignable to P. p. collinus. Based on the concordance of these results, populations from the United States are referred to as P. laceianus, whereas populations from Mexico are referred to as P. pectoralis (including some samples historically assigned to P. p. collinus, P. p. laceianus, and P. p. pectoralis). A new subspecies is described to represent populations south of the Río Grande in northern and central Mexico. Additional research is needed to discern if P. p. collinus warrants species recognition.

In the December 2014 issue (95.6), the title of the first book in the Books Received section was incorrect. The correct title is Primate Comparative Anatomy by D. L. Gebo. The editor regrets the error.