We review the literature and discuss control options regarding foot and mouth disease (FMD) in wildlife around the world. There are more than 100 species of wild, feral, laboratory, or domesticated animals that have been infected naturally or experimentally with FMD virus. Apart from the African buffalo (Syncerus caffer) in sub-Saharan Africa, wildlife has not been demonstrated to play a significant role in the maintenance of FMD. More often, wildlife are passively infected when outbreaks of FMD occur in domestic livestock, and, in some wild ungulates, infection results in severe disease. Efforts to control FMD in wildlife may not be successful when the disease is endemic in livestock and may cause more harm to wildlife, human livelihoods, and domestic animals. Currently in sub-Saharan Africa, the complete eradication of FMD on a subcontinental scale in the near term is not possible, given the presence of FMD-infected African buffalo and the existence of weak veterinary infrastructures in some FMD-endemic countries. Therefore efforts to control the disease should be aimed at improved vaccines and improved use of vaccines, improved livestock management practices, and utilization of programs that can help in disease control such as the FMD Progressive Control Program and regulatory frameworks that facilitate trade such zonation, compartmentalization, and commodity-based trade. Though not meeting the definition of wildlife used in this review, feral domestic animals warrant a special concern with regard to FMD control.

Although antemortem approaches in wildlife disease surveillance are common for most zoonoses, they have been used infrequently in anthrax surveillance. Classically, anthrax is considered a disease with extremely high mortality. This is because anthrax outbreaks are often detected ex post facto through wildlife or livestock fatalities or spillover transmission to humans. As a result, the natural prevalence of anthrax infection in animal populations is largely unknown. However, in the past 20 yr, antemortem serologic surveillance in wildlife has indicated that not all species exposed succumb to infection, and anthrax exposure may be more widespread than originally appreciated. These studies brought about a multitude of new questions, many of which can be addressed by increased antemortem serologic surveillance in wildlife populations. To fully understand anthrax transmission dynamics and geographic extent, it is important to identify exposure in wildlife hosts and associated factors and, in turn, understand how these influences may drive environmental reservoir dynamics and concurrent disease risk in livestock and humans. Here we review our current understanding of the serologic response to anthrax among wildlife hosts and serologic diagnostic assays used to augment traditional postmortem anthrax surveillance strategies. We also provide recommendations for the use of serology and sentinel species surveillance approaches in anthrax research and management.

In 1994 a novel Brucella sp., later named B. pinnipedialis, was identified in stranded harbor seals (Phoca vitulina). This Brucella sp. is a potential zoonotic pathogen and is capable of causing disease in domestic animals. Serologic, microbiologic, and pathologic data collected from live captured and stranded harbor seals were used to better describe the epizootiology of B. pinnipedialis in harbor seals from Washington State, USA, in 1994 through 2006. We found no sex predilection in harbor seal exposure or infection with B. pinnipedialis but noted a significant difference in prevalence among age classes, with weaned pups, yearlings, and subadults having highest exposure and infection. The most common postmortem finding in 26 Brucella-positive animals (culture and/or PCR) was verminous pneumonia due to Parafilaroides spp. or Otostrongulus circumlitus. Our data are consistent with exposure to B. pinnipedialis post-weaning, and it is likely that fish or invertebrates and possibly lungworms are involved in the transmission to harbor seals. Brucella pinnipedialis was cultured or detected by PCR from seal salivary gland, lung, urinary bladder, and feces, suggesting that wildlife professionals working with live, infected seals could be exposed to the bacterium via exposure to oral secretions, urine, or feces. Endangered sympatric wildlife species could be exposed to B. pinnipedialis via predation on infected seals or through a common marine fish or invertebrate prey item involved in its transmission. More work is required to elucidate further potential fish or invertebrates that could be involved in the transmission of B. pinnipedialis to harbor seals and better understand the potential risk they could pose to humans or sympatric endangered species who also consume these prey items.

An accurate assessment of animal health is fundamental to disease investigation in wildlife. Blood samples (n = 609) from several populations of the endangered woylie or brush-tailed bettong (Bettongia penicillata ogilbyi), collected between March 2006 and April 2010 in Western Australia and South Australia, were used to establish hematologic reference ranges. Differences between populations, sexes, and seasons were also investigated. Significant sex differences in hematocrit, red blood cell, total white blood cell, neutrophil, lymphocyte, and eosinophil counts were evident in at least one population. Generally, males had higher hematocrit and blood cell concentrations than did females. A positive association of the erythron parameters with rainfall was also detected. The hematologic characteristics of woylie populations described in this study greatly increase knowledge of the health status in these populations. The data also represent a baseline to enable monitoring and detection of changes in the health status in these populations as well as representing a valid dataset for comparison with hematologic investigations in other macropods and marsupials.

Health screening of animals before translocation is important to minimize the risk of pathogen transmission between sites and species. Reintroduction has been incorporated into management of the endangered western ringtail possum (Pseudocheirus occidentalis) to mitigate for habitat loss within the species' core range in southwestern Australia. Between November 2005 and March 2008 we screened 47 wild and 24 captive P. occidentalis and 68 sympatric common brushtail possums (Trichosurus vulpecula hypoleucus) for infectious diseases that might compromise possum survival or fecundity at translocation sites. We found no evidence that infectious disease limits translocation success, and neither possum species showed evidence of infection with Salmonella spp., Toxoplasma gondii, Leptospira spp., or Chlamydophila spp. Antigen of Cryptococcus gattii was detected in one T. v. hypoleucus but was not of pathologic significance. Hematologic and serum biochemical reference ranges were determined for 81 wild and 24 captive P. occidentalis. Site differences were identified for red blood cell count, hemoglobin, albumin, urea, and globulin, suggesting that habitat quality or nutrient intake may vary among sites. Differences between wild and captive values were found for several parameters. These data are useful for health evaluations of injured P. occidentalis and the future monitoring of wild populations.

Risk perception has an important influence on wildlife management and is particularly relevant to issues that present health risks, such as those associated with wildlife disease management. Knowledge of risk perceptions is useful to wildlife health professionals in developing communication messages that enhance public understanding of wildlife disease risks and that aim to increase public support for disease management. To promote knowledge of public understanding of disease risks in the context of wildlife disease management, we used a self-administered questionnaire mailed to a stratified random sample (n = 901) across the continental United States to accomplish three objectives: 1) assess zoonotic disease risk perceptions; 2) identify sociodemographic and social psychologic factors underlying these risk perceptions; and 3) examine the relationship between risk perception and agreement with wildlife disease management practices. Diseases we assessed in the surveys were rabies, plague, and West Nile virus. Risk perception, as measured by an index consisting of severity, susceptibility, and dread, was greatest for rabies and West Nile virus disease (x¯ = 2.62 and 2.59, respectively, on a scale of 1 to 4 and least for plague (x¯ = 2.39). The four most important variables associated with disease risk perception were gender, education, prior exposure to the disease, and concern for health effects. We found that stronger risk perception was associated with greater agreement with wildlife disease management. We found particular concern for the vulnerability of wildlife to zoonotic disease and for protection of wildlife health, indicating that stakeholders may be receptive to messages emphasizing the potential harm to wildlife from disease and to messages promoting One Health (i.e., those that emphasize the interdependence of human, domestic animal, wildlife, and ecosystem health).

White-nose syndrome (WNS) is an emerging infectious disease of hibernating bats linked to the death of an estimated 5.7 million or more bats in the northeastern United States and Canada. White-nose syndrome is caused by the cold-loving fungus Pseudogymnoascus destructans (Pd), which invades the skin of the muzzles, ears, and wings of hibernating bats. Previous work has shown that WNS-affected bats arouse to euthermic or near euthermic temperatures during hibernation significantly more frequently than normal and that these too-frequent arousals are tied to severity of infection and death date. We quantified the behavior of bats during these arousal bouts to understand better the causes and consequences of these arousals. We hypothesized that WNS-affected bats would display increased levels of activity (especially grooming) during their arousal bouts from hibernation compared to WNS-unaffected bats. Behavior of both affected and unaffected hibernating bats in captivity was monitored from December 2010 to March 2011 using temperature-sensitive dataloggers attached to the backs of bats and infrared motion-sensitive cameras. The WNS-affected bats exhibited significantly higher rates of grooming, relative to unaffected bats, at the expense of time that would otherwise be spent inactive. Increased self-grooming may be related to the presence of the fungus. Elevated activity levels in affected bats likely increase energetic stress, whereas the loss of rest (inactive periods when aroused from torpor) may jeopardize the ability of a bat to reestablish homeostasis in a number of physiologic systems.

Borna disease (BD) is a severe endemic and fatal disorder caused by the neurotropic Borna disease virus (BDV) which mainly occurs in horses and sheep. Borna disease virus belongs to the order Mononegavirales, which includes many reservoir-bound viruses with high zoonotic and pathogenic properties including the filoviruses and lyssaviruses. Clinically manifest BD occurs in endemic areas of Germany, Switzerland, Liechtenstein, and Austria. A seasonal accumulation of cases in spring and summer, incidences that vary from year to year, and the recent detection of BDV in bicolored shrews (Crocidura leucodon) in Swiss endemic areas argue for a natural reservoir. We established a geographic information system analysis of the distribution of 485 equine BD cases in Bavarian (Germany) endemic areas and of the occurrence of 285 records of C. leucodon captured in Bavaria. Boosted regression trees were used to identify driving factors of habitat choice and virus prevalence. The distribution model of C. leucodon and the prevalence model for BDV had very good accuracy. Mean annual precipitation <900 mm, mean annual temperatures of 8 C, elevation <350 m, low forest cover, and a high percentage of urban fabric and arable land describe the optimal habitat for C. leucodon. Occurrence probability of C. leucodon was significantly higher in Bavarian BDV-endemic areas than in random areas in Bavaria. The prevalence of BD was higher in urban areas with annual mean precipitation of 800–900 mm, annual mean temperature of 8 C, and elevation >500 m. Our results indicate that the distribution model can accurately predict BD occurrence. Based on these results, practical safety precautions could be derived. The BDV model represents a suitable system for reservoir-bound, neurotropic Mononegavirales because it allows analyzing ecologic and biologic aspects that determine virus abundance, maintenance in reservoir species, and transmission to end host species.

In the Plains states of the central United States, research suggests that the prevalence of West Nile virus (WNV) disease in humans is higher in agricultural areas than in nonagricultural areas. In contrast, there is limited information about WNV exposure in birds, the primary amplifying host of WNV, in agriculturally dominated landscapes. We evaluated whether exposure to WNV in peridomestic birds sampled in central Iowa varied with the proportion of land use devoted to agriculture. Over the summers of 2009 and 2010, we captured birds in sites comprising gradients of agricultural, urban, and natural land uses, and tested their sera for antibodies to WNV. Overall, WNV antibody prevalence was low (2.3%). Our results suggest that agricultural land use had minimal influence on WNV exposure in birds. We conclude that birds are not likely to be useful indicators of WNV activity in agricultural areas in the Plains states despite human risk being highest in those areas. Antibody prevalence for WNV, however, was higher in American Robins, Mourning Doves, and Northern Cardinals than in other species, making these species potentially useful for monitoring WNV activity in the US Plains states.

Ranavirus (Iridoviridae) infection is a significant cause of mortality in amphibians. Detection of infected individuals, particularly carriers, is necessary to prevent and control outbreaks. Recently, the use of toe clips to detect ranavirus infection through PCR was proposed as an alternative to the more frequently used lethal liver sampling in green frogs (Rana [Lithobates] clamitans). We attempted reevaluate the use of toe clips, evaluate the potential use of blood onto filter paper and hepatic fine needle aspirates (FNAs) as further alternatives, and explore the adequacy of using green frogs as a target-sampling species when searching for ranavirus infection in the wild. Samples were obtained from 190 postmetamorphic (≥1-yr-old) green frogs from five ponds on Prince Edward Island (PEI), Canada. Three of the ponds had contemporary or recent tadpole mortalities due to Frog Virus 3 (FV3) ranavirus. PCR testing for ranavirus DNA was performed on 190 toe clips, 188 blood samples, 72 hepatic FNAs, and 72 liver tissue samples. Only two frogs were ranavirus-positive: liver and toe clip were positive in one, liver only was positive in the other; all blood and FNAs, including those from the two positive frogs, were negative. Results did not yield a definitive answer on the efficacy of testing each type of sample, but resemble what is found in salamanders infected with Ambystoma tigrinum (rana)virus. Findings indicate a low prevalence of FV3 in postmetamorphic green frogs on PEI (≤2.78%) and suggest that green frogs are poor reservoirs (carriers) for the virus.

Northern sea otters (Enhydra lutris kenyoni) from Washington State, United States were evaluated in 2011 to determine health status and pathogen exposure. Antibodies to Brucella spp. (10%) and influenza A virus (23%) were detected for the first time in this population in 2011. Changes in clinical pathology values (serum chemistries), exposure to pathogens, and overall health of the population over the last decade were assessed by comparing 2011 data to the data collected on this population in 2001–2002. Several serum chemistry parameters were different between study years and sexes but were not clinically significant. The odds of canine distemper virus exposure were higher for otters sampled in 2001–2002 (80%) compared to 2011 (10%); likelihood of exposure significantly increased with age. Prevalence of exposure to Sarcocystis neurona was also higher in 2001–2002 (29%) than in 2011 (0%), but because testing methods varied between study years the results were not directly comparable. Exposure to Leptospira spp. was only observed in 2001–2002. Odds of Toxoplasma gondii exposure were higher for otters sampled in 2011 (97%) than otters in 2001–2002 (58%). Substantial levels of domoic acid (n = 2) and saxitoxin (n = 2) were found in urine or fecal samples from animals sampled in 2011. No evidence of calicivirus or Coxiella burnetii exposure in the Washington population of northern sea otters was found in either 2001–2002 or 2011. Changes in exposure status from 2001–2002 to 2011 suggest that the Washington sea otter population may be dealing with new disease threats (e.g., influenza) while also increasing their susceptibility to diseases that may be highly pathogenic in naïve individuals (e.g., canine distemper).

Disease caused by Brucella ovis has not been previously reported in bighorn sheep (BHS; Ovis canadensis canadensis). Antibodies to B. ovis, however, are occasionally detected in free-ranging BHS, and this has been a concern for managers involved in translocation programs. To investigate the pathogenesis of B. ovis infection in this species, 20 BHS (10 male, 10 female) were inoculated intraconjunctivally (IC) with 5.4×10⁸ colony forming units (cfu) B. ovis. Six BHS (three male, three female) received 1 mL phosphate-buffered saline IC and served as in-contact control animals, and eight BHS (one male, seven female) received 1 mL phosphate-buffered saline (PBS) IC and served as noncontact controls. In addition, 14 domestic sheep (Ovis aries, nine male, five female) were inoculated IC with 5.4×10⁸ cfu B. ovis (positive controls), and five domestic sheep (three male, two female) received 1 mL PBS IC (contact controls). All domestic sheep were housed separately from BHS. Bighorn sheep experimentally infected with B. ovis became antibody and culture positive and developed clinical signs of B. ovis infection including abortion and epididymal and testicular swelling. Lesions in BHS were consistent with, and in some cases more severe, than those observed in domestic sheep. Antibodies against B. ovis were detected within 4 wk postinoculation and remained positive until the end of the study. These findings have important implications for BHS management.

In aquatic bird populations, the ability of avian influenza (AI) viruses to remain infectious in water for extended periods provides a mechanism that allows viral transmission to occur long after shedding birds have left the area. However, this also exposes other aquatic organisms, including freshwater invertebrates, to AI viruses. Previous researchers found that AI viral RNA can be sequestered in snail tissues. Using an experimental approach, we determined whether freshwater snails (Physa acuta and Physa gyrina) can infect waterfowl with AI viruses by serving as a means of transmission between infected and naïve waterfowl via ingestion. In our first experiment, we exposed 20 Physa spp. snails to an AI virus (H3N8) and inoculated embryonated specific pathogen–free (SPF) chicken eggs with the homogenized snail tissues. Sequestered AI viruses remain infectious in snail tissues; 10% of the exposed snail tissues infected SPF eggs. In a second experiment, we exposed snails to water contaminated with feces of AI virus–inoculated Mallards (Anas platyrhynchos) to evaluate whether ingestion of exposed freshwater snails was an alternate route of AI virus transmission to waterfowl. None of the immunologically naïve Mallards developed an infection, indicating that transmission via ingestion likely did not occur. Our results suggest that this particular trophic interaction may not play an important role in the transmission of AI viruses in aquatic habitats.

Prairie dogs (Cynomys spp.) are highly susceptible to Yersinia pestis, with ≥99% mortality reported from multiple studies of plague epizootics. A colony of Gunnison's prairie dogs (Cynomys gunnisoni) in the Aubrey Valley (AV) of northern Arizona appears to have survived several regional epizootics of plague, whereas nearby colonies have been severely affected by Y. pestis. To examine potential mechanisms accounting for survival in the AV colony, we conducted a laboratory Y. pestis challenge experiment on 60 wild-caught prairie dogs from AV and from a nearby, large colony with frequent past outbreaks of plague, Espee (n = 30 per colony). Test animals were challenged subcutaneously with the fully virulent Y. pestis strain CO92 at three doses: 50, 5,000, and 50,000 colony-forming units (cfu); this range is lethal in black-tailed prairie dogs (Cynomys ludovicianus). Contrary to our expectations, only 40% of the animals died. Although mortality trended higher in the Espee colony (50%) compared with AV (30%), the differences among infectious doses were not statistically significant. Only 39% of the survivors developed moderate to high antibody levels to Y. pestis, indicating that mechanisms other than humoral immunity are important in resistance to plague. The ratio of neutrophils to lymphocytes was not correlated with plague survival in this study. However, several immune proteins with roles in innate immunity (VCAM-1, CXCL-1, and vWF) were upregulated during plague infection and warrant further inquiry into their role for protection against this disease. These results suggest plague resistance exists in wild populations of the Gunnison's prairie dog and provide important directions for future studies.

Multiple publications have reported the use of coyotes (Canis latrans) in animal-based surveillance efforts for the detection of Yersinia pestis. Coyotes are likely exposed via flea bite or oral routes and are presumed to be resistant to the development of clinical disease. These historic data have only been useful for the evaluation of the geographic distribution of Y. pestis in the landscape. Because the canid immunologic response to Y. pestis has not been thoroughly characterized, we conducted experimental inoculation of captive-reared, juvenile coyotes (n = 8) with Y. pestis CO92 via oral or intradermal routes. We measured the humoral response to Y. pestis fraction 1 capsular protein (anti-F1) and found a significant difference between inoculation groups in magnitude and duration of antibody production. The anti-F1 titers in animals exposed intradermally peaked at day 10 postinoculation (PI; range = 1∶32 to 1∶128) with titers remaining stable at 1∶32 through week 12. In contrast, orally inoculated animals developed higher titers (range = 1∶256 to 1∶1,024) that remained stable at 1∶256 to 1∶512 through week 6. No clinical signs of disease were observed, and minimal changes were noted in body temperature, white blood cell counts, and acute phase proteins during the 7 days PI. Gross pathology was unremarkable, and minimal changes were noted in histopathology at days 3 and 7 PI. Rechallenge at 14 wk PI via similar dosage and routes resulted in marked differences in antibody response between groups. Animals in the orally inoculated group produced a striking increase in anti-F1 titers (up to 1∶4,096) within 3 days, whereas there was minimal to no increase in antibody response in the intradermal group. Information gathered from this experimental trial may provide additional insight into the spatial and temporal evaluation of coyote plague serology.

Sera collected from 299 white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) harvested in New York State by hunters in November 2010 were assayed for anti-Toxoplasma gondii IgG antibodies. White-tailed deer are a useful sentinel for risk of human and domestic animal exposure to Toxoplasma oocysts and pose a potential risk for infection to humans and other animals by ingestion of the meat. White-tailed deer share grazing space with domestic animals raised for meat and are likely to be exposed by horizontal transmission through oocyst consumption, similar to other grazing species of economic concern. Overall, 42.2% of samples were positive by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, indicating a true prevalence of 38.5%, with a significantly higher proportion of adult than immature deer antibody positive. No significant difference in prevalence was found between male and female deer nor was there a significant effect of local human population density on deer antibody prevalence. These results provide insight into the risk of environmental Toxoplasma exposure in New York State and support horizontal transmission through oocyst consumption as the most common mechanism of white-tailed deer infection.

White-nose syndrome (WNS) is an emerging infectious wildlife disease that has killed more than 5 million bats in the eastern United States since its discovery in winter 2006. The disease is associated with a cold-adapted fungus that infects bats during winter hibernation. Wing damage has been documented in bats with WNS and could become a useful screening tool for determining whether samples should be submitted for testing. However, because there are no historic records, to our knowledge, of wing damage before the emergence of WNS, it is unknown what types of grossly observable wing damage, if any, are specific to WNS. To address this knowledge gap, we inspected the wings of 1,327 bat carcasses collected in Illinois from 2005 and 2008–2010, then used Akaike information criterion to evaluate generalized linear models of the frequencies of different categories of wing damage using age, sex, year, and season as predictors in big brown bats (Eptesicus fuscus). Wing discoloration was best predicted by year and season. There were no clear predictors for other categories of wing damage. We found that about one-fourth of big brown bats surveyed from this presumptive WNS-negative sample had moderate or severe wing damage. We encourage further studies of the relationship between WNS and wing damage to better understand which categories of damage are to be expected in the absence of WNS in susceptible species.

In October 2009, during a Karenia brevis red tide along the Texas coast, millions of dead fish washed ashore along the 113-km length of Padre Island National Seashore (PAIS). Between November 2009 and January 2010, at least 12 coyotes (Canis latrans) and three domestic dogs (Canis familiaris) died or were euthanized at PAIS or local veterinary clinics because of illness suspected to be related to the red tide. Another red tide event occurred during autumn 2011 and, although fewer dead fish were observed relative to the 2009 event, coyotes again were affected. Staff at PAIS submitted carcasses of four coyotes and one domestic dog from November 2009 to February 2010 and six coyotes from October to November 2011 for necropsy and ancillary testing. High levels of brevetoxins (PbTxs) were measured by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay in seven of the coyotes and the dog, with concentrations up to 634 ng PbTx-3 eq/g in stomach contents, 545 ng PbTx-3 eq/g in liver, 195 ng PbTx-3 eq/g in kidney, and 106 ng PbTx-3 eq/mL in urine samples. Based on red tide presence, clinical signs, and postmortem findings, brevetoxicosis caused by presumptive ingestion of toxic dead fish was the likely cause of canid deaths at PAIS. These findings represent the first confirmed report of terrestrial mammalian wildlife mortalities related to a K. brevis bloom. The implications for red tide impacts on terrestrial wildlife populations are a potentially significant but relatively undocumented phenomenon.

Although it is well established that wild birds, such as cormorants, carry virulent avian paramyxovirus serotype 1 (APMV-1; causative agent of Newcastle disease) and avian influenza virus (AIV), the prevalence of these viruses among Double-crested Cormorants (Phalacrocorax auritus) in the Great Lakes region of North America has not been rigorously studied. We determined the prevalences of APMV-1 and AIV in Double-crested Cormorants from the interior population of eastern North America. From 2009 to 2011, oropharyngeal and cloacal swabs and serum samples were collected from 1,957 individual Double-crested Cormorants, ranging from chicks to breeding adults, on breeding colony sites in Michigan, Wisconsin, and Mississippi, USA, and Ontario, Canada, as well as on the wintering grounds of migratory populations in Mississippi, USA. Prevalence of antibodies to APMV-1 in after–hatch year birds was consistently high across all three years, ranging from 86.3% to 91.6%. Antibody prevalences in chicks were much lower: 1.7, 15.3, and 16.4% in 2009, 2010, and 2011, respectively. Virulent APMV-1 was detected in six chicks sampled in 2010 in Ontario, Canada. Only one adult was positive for AIV-specific antibodies and five individuals were positive for AIV matrix protein, but the latter were negative for H5 and H7 AIV subtypes. We provide further evidence that Double-crested Cormorants play an important role in the maintenance and circulation of APMV-1 in the wild, but are unlikely to be involved in the circulation of AIV.

Avian poxvirus (genus Avipoxvirus, family Poxviridae) is an enveloped double-stranded DNA virus that may be transmitted to birds by arthropod vectors or mucosal membrane contact with infectious particles. We characterized the infection in Anna's Hummingbird (Calypte anna; n = 5 birds, n = 9 lesions) by conducting diagnostic tests on skin lesions that were visually similar to avian poxvirus lesions in other bird species. Skin lesions were single or multiple, dry and firm, pink to yellow, with scabs on the surface, and located at the base of the bill, wings, or legs. Microscopically, the lesions were characterized by epidermal hyperplasia and necrosis with ballooning degeneration, and intracytoplasmic inclusions (Bollinger bodies) in keratinocytes. The 4b core gene sequence of avian poxvirus was detected by PCR in samples prepared from lesions. Nucleotide sequences were 75–94% similar to the sequences of other published avian poxvirus sequences. Phylogenetic analyses showed that the Anna's Hummingbird poxvirus sequence was distinguished as a unique subclade showing similarities with sequences isolated from Ostrich (Struthio camelus), Wild Turkey (Meleagris gallopavo), falcons (Falco spp.), Black-browed Albatross (Diomedea melanophris), Mourning Dove (Zenaida macroura) and White-tailed Eagle (Haliaeetus albicilla). To our knowledge this is the first published report of definitive laboratory diagnosis of avian poxvirus in a hummingbird. Our results advance the science of disease ecology in hummingbirds, providing management information for banders, wildlife rehabilitators, and avian biologists.

In autumn 2011, 11 illegally imported animals were seized from a farm in southern Norway. These included four raccoon dogs (Nyctereutes procyonoides), four raccoons (Procyon lotor), and three South American coatis (Nasua nasua), all considered alien species in Norway. An additional two raccoons had escaped from the farm prior to seizure. The seized animals were euthanized and postmortem examination revealed that the four raccoons had moderate to high numbers of the zoonotic nematode Baylisascaris procyonis in their intestines, ranging from 11 to 115 nematodes per small intestine, with a mean of 53. The identity of the nematodes was confirmed using molecular analysis of ITS-1, ITS-2, cytochrome C oxidase 1, and 18S. Echinococcus multilocularis was not detected in any of the 11 animals. Toxocara and Toxascaris sp. eggs were detected in the feces of two raccoons, and two coatis had coccidia oocysts (80 and 360 oocysts per gram). Domestic dogs and other wildlife on the farm had potential access to the animal pens. Given that the eggs can remain infective for years in the environment, local veterinary and health authorities will need to remain vigilant for symptoms relating to infection with B. procyonis.

Enteric Helicobacter species (Helicobacter pullorum, Helicobacter pametensis, Helicobacter canadensis, Helicobacter anseris, and Helicobacter brantae) have been found in birds from temperate latitudes. We evaluated the occurrence of Helicobacter spp. in terrestrial wild birds from Venezuela. A fragment of 16S rRNA gene was amplified by PCR with Helicobacter genus–specific primers. Helicobacter spp. were detected in four of 80 fecal and in three of 42 intestinal tissue samples. Analyses of 16S and 23S rRNA gene sequences confirm for the first time the presence of Helicobacter in tropical terrestrial wild birds. However, the occurrence of Helicobacter was low, suggesting these bacteria may be uncommon in the populations we studied.

The eastern snapping turtle (Chelydra serpentina) is widely distributed throughout the eastern and central US and is a useful model organism to study land-use impacts on water quality. We compared the reproductive condition of turtles from a pond impacted by runoff from land applied with animal manure from a concentrated animal feeding operation (CAFO) relative to animals from a control pond. Turtles from the CAFO site were heavier and had higher plasma concentrations of vitellogenin (VTG, mean±SE; females; 859±115 vs. 401±127 ng/mL from controls) and testosterone (T, males; 39±7.0 vs. 3.8±6.9 ng/mL from controls). No VTG was detected in males. Body mass was positively correlated with VTG and T. Our results suggest that nutrient pollution of the CAFO pond indirectly resulted in higher plasma VTG in females and T in males because of an increase in body mass. The population-level consequences of these effects are not clear, but could result in females producing larger clutches.

Several rabies-related lyssaviruses have been associated with bat species in southern Africa, the rarest of these being Duvenhage virus (DUVV), for which only five isolations have been made over five decades. Three of these were from human fatalities, and it is not known which bat species acts as reservoir. In studying a population of Nycteris thebaica in the kingdom of Swaziland, a landlocked country bordering Mozambique and South Africa, we found evidence of the circulation of a lyssavirus. Virus-neutralization assays indicated DUVV-neutralizing antibodies in 30% of the sera collected from this population of N. thebaica, providing the first indication of a Duvenhage virus circulating in this particular species and the first evidence of a bat lyssavirus circulating in Swaziland bats.

We studied the immune response of wild House Sparrows (Passer domesticus) experimentally challenged with different doses of inactivated Newcastle disease virus (NDV) vaccine. We evaluated within-individual cell-mediated and humoral responses in birds kept in outdoor aviaries, over a 6-wk period. Nonbreeding adult House Sparrows developed a significant humoral response to NDV experimental vaccination within 1 wk postchallenge, as measured by hemagglutination inhibition assay; values increased until week 4 and persisted until week 6. Differences among treatments appeared by week 1, with individuals challenged with the highest dose (0.2 mL) eliciting a higher humoral response than the rest (n = 18). By week 4, all individuals vaccinated displayed an increased humoral response, with individuals challenged with the highest dose remaining significantly above responses of individuals vaccinated with the middle dose (0.1 mL, n = 14), but not the lowest dose (0.05 mL, n = 15). The middle and lowest dose responded similarly and significantly different from controls (n = 23). Differences persisted through week 6 postchallenge. Cell-mediated responses were independent of the experimental treatment. All individuals experienced a rise in granulocyte concentration, whereas lymphocyte and monocyte concentrations decreased, most likely as a result of captivity. Adult wild House Sparrows immunochallenged with inactivated NDV vaccine developed a specific humoral response, highlighting the utility of this technique in immunologic and evolutionary ecology studies in wild birds.

In 2009, an outbreak of white nodular cutaneous lesions was detected in one of only two known breeding colonies of the critically endangered southern bentwing bat (Miniopterus schreibersii bassanii), at Naracoorte, South Australia. Necropsies were conducted on 10 euthanized bats in September 2009. In October 2009, 123 bats were examined under anesthesia, with skin biopsies collected from 18 affected bats. Prevalence of skin lesions was 45.2%. The prevalence among males was three times greater than among females. The majority of lesions examined histologically were granulomas, typically centered on a nematode. A single lesion had epidermal hyperplasia with intracytoplasmic inclusions consistent with a pox virus; pox virions were identified on electron microscopy. Nematodes dissected from frozen lesions were identified morphologically as Riouxgolvania beveridgei, previously described in the eastern bentwing bat (Miniopterus schreibersii oceanensis). The factors contributing to this apparent disease emergence and outbreak remain undetermined. Lesions consistent with white nose syndrome were not identified.

We studied white-nosed coatis (Nasua narica) in Monteverde, Costa Rica to evaluate their potential as a reservoir for the vector-borne zoonotic parasite Trypanosoma cruzi and other selected microorganisms. We live-trapped 20 coatis in July and August 2011 and tested them for T. cruzi by blood smear, molecular analysis of blood, culture of blood and anal gland secretions, and serology. Seven coatis (35%) were polymerase-chain-reaction–positive for T. cruzi and one coati was also culture positive. We did not detect T. cruzi in anal gland secretions. All coatis were positive for Mycoplasma and Babesia, but were negative for Baylisascaris, Anaplasma, Candidatus Neoehrlichia lotoris, Ehrlichia, Bartonella, and several apicomplexan parasites. The possible pathogenicity of T. cruzi, Babesia, and Mycoplasma in coatis and their transmission potential to humans and domestic animals warrants further investigation.

Congenital toxoplasmosis has been little described in wild animals. We report a case of vertical transmission in wild boar (Sus scrofa). Necropsy and histopathologic examination of a pregnant female and her three fetuses revealed all to have lesions compatible with acute toxoplasmosis. Nested polymerase chain reaction B1 gene detected Toxoplasma gondii in maternal (heart and diaphragm) and fetal (central nervous system, retina, optic nerve, heart, lung, tongue, and diaphragm) samples. The mother had a mixed infection of T. gondii types I and III. One fetus with type III infection developed no malformations, but the others—one with type I infection and one infected by types I and III—showed bilateral ocular agenesis, prognathism, and agenesis of the nasal cartilage. These results suggest the pathogenicity of the various T. gondii types may differ in wild boars.

An approximately 1-yr-old black bear was discovered on the porch of a rural residence in southwestern Pennsylvania on October 26, 2011, where it remained during the day in spite of efforts to frighten it away. The bear exhibited periods of somnolence and sporadic tremors and seizures. It was euthanized by gunshot that evening. Immediately after euthanasia it was observed to have footpads that exuded fluid when compressed. It was submitted for necropsy the next day where roughened footpads were noted. Histologic examination of the brain demonstrated nonsuppurative encephalitis with eosinophilic intranuclear and intracytoplasmic inclusion bodies in neurons. The footpads were thickened and hyperkeratotic. Canine distemper virus (CDV) was detected by immunohistochemistry (IHC) in the brain and footpads, and by reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) from the brain tissue. Phylogenetic analysis indicated that the CDV cDNA from the bear had 98.2% nucleotide identity to the Rockborn-Candur vaccine and a canine isolate from 2004 in Missouri, USA, and 97.3% nucleotide identity to a raccoon CDV isolated in 2011 from Tennessee, USA. This represents a first report of CDV as a cause of encephalitis or footpad hyperkeratosis in a wild black bear.

Limited information exists on Neospora caninum transmission dynamics in wildlife. This coccidian parasite, whose presence can lead to substantial economic losses in cattle operations, requires a canid definitive host for reproduction. We examined exposure in a definitive host, coyotes (Canis latrans), and in overlapping populations of feral swine (Sus scrofa) to determine if spatial proximity between a definitive and incidental host influences the likelihood of parasite exposure. Eighteen percent of coyotes (95% confidence interval [CI] = 14.2–21.8) and 15.8% of feral swine (95% CI = 12.5–19.2) had been exposed to N. caninum, and this is the first report of exposure in US feral swine populations. Analyses suggest that the parasite is present throughout the environment and that exposure is not temporally or spatially linked to antibody-positive coyotes. Antibody-positive feral swine were found in an area where the only definitive host is domestic dogs (Canis familiaris), indicating that wild canids are not required to maintain the parasite in the environment.

The small Indian mongoose (Herpestes auropunctatus), a rabies reservoir species on several Islands in the Caribbean, was successfully immunized against rabies for the first time by offering animals a vaccine bait specifically designed for this small carnivore. The bait contained on average 0.6 mL of the genetically modified replication-competent rabies virus construct SPBN GASGAS (10^8.5 focus-forming units/mL). Three of four mongooses offered a bait developed an immune response above 0.5 IU/mL, but the response was less pronounced than in two animals offered the vaccine by direct oral instillation.

Previously published studies indicated that combinations of medetomidine and ketamine were effective for both Svalbard (Rangifer tarandus platyrhynchus) and wild Norwegian reindeer (Rangifer tarandus tarandus). Both previous studies indicated that reindeer were hypoxemic on the basis of pulse oximetry. We conducted a physiologic evaluation of these two protocols using arterial blood gases. Medetomidine (10 mg) and ketamine (200 mg) were administered by dart from the ground in Svalbard reindeer (October 2010) and from a helicopter for wild reindeer (March 2012). Of tested animals, all seven wild reindeer and five of seven Svalbard reindeer were hypoxemic before oxygen administration. Nasal oxygen insufflation (1 L/min for five Svalbard reindeer and one wild reindeer and 2 L/min for four wild reindeer) corrected hypoxemia in all cases evaluated. For reversal, all animals received 5 mg atipamezole per mg medetomidine intramuscularly.

Over a 7-day period beginning 8 August 2011, a large number of wild birds of several species were found dead or with neurologic clinical signs along the shore of Crostolo stream, in the Emilia Romagna region, Italy. Twenty-eight Mallards (Anas platyrhynchos), two Hooded Crows (Corvus corone cornix), and three coypus (Myocastor coypus) were found moribund on the Crostolo stream bank, collected, and sent to Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Lombardia e dell'Emilia Romagna, Reggio Emilia Section. The cause of mortality was determined to be Clostridium botulinum type C toxin. The toxin was identified by a mouse bioassay for botulinum toxins and confirmed in bird sera and blowfly larvae (Lucilia caesar) collected from the stomachs of birds.

Clostridium sordellii is found in the environment and occasionally in animal (including human) intestines and may cause myonecrosis and large outbreaks of enterotoxemia. A few cases of fatal clostridial infection in bears (Ursus spp.) have been described worldwide but none attributed to C. sordellii. We describe a fatal case of septicemia caused by C. sordellii in an illegally trapped brown bear (Ursus arctos). At necropsy, acute gangrenous myositis was the primary lesion. Serohemorrhagic edema was observed in the abdominal cavity, thorax, pericardium, and skeletal muscle, mostly affecting femoral, humeral, and scapular muscles. Hemorrhage was observed in the heart, skeletal muscles, stomach, and intestine. Liver, spleen, and kidney appeared with loss of consistency, hemorrhages, and edema. Microscopically, primary lesions were in skeletal muscle, stomach, and small intestine, with gram-positive, clostridial-like bacilli. Biochemical and molecular tests identified C. sordellii in cultures from liver, muscle, and intestine. Sequences showed a homology of >99% with the 16S rRNA gene sequence of C. sordellii. The severity of effects of the C. sordellii infection reveal the importance of this pathogen as a wildlife health risk with conservation concerns, as well as the need to consider possible infection with this pathogen in management actions involving immobilization, stress, or severe muscular activity of wild brown bears.

The helminth Baylisascaris schroederi is one of the most harmful parasites infecting giant pandas (Ailuropoda melanoleuca). It is therefore important to develop an exact diagnostic technique to detect this parasite. Using a known number (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 10, 25, 50, 100) of feces-isolated B. schroederi egg and adult DNA, we developed a PCR to detect a portion of the mitochondrial 12S rRNA and applied it to giant panda fecal samples. The method was sufficiently sensitive to detect B. schroederi DNA from isolated eggs in a fecal sample with a detection threshold of one egg. We detected B. schroederi in 88% of fecal samples, 30% higher than the conventional flotation technique. No cross-reactivity with other common nematode DNA was detected. Our PCR assay may constitute a valuable alternative for the diagnosis of B. schroederi infections.

We investigated circulation of coronaviruses, paramyxoviruses, and influenza A viruses in eight seabird species of the southwestern Indian Ocean. Viruses were not detected by real-time polymerase chain reactions in the 338 tested cloacal swab samples, supporting that they did not circulate in the studied colonies at the time of sampling.

A wild-caught desert cottontail rabbit (Sylvilagus audubonii) from Colorado was observed to have large, pedunculated, dark cutaneous lesions on its abdomen and cylindrical masses on its mouth. Morphologically, the masses were consistent with previous reports of virally induced papillomas. Subsequent DNA analysis indicated widespread infection with cottontail rabbit papillomavirus.

Cysts morphologically resembling Balantidium coli were identified in the feces of a mountain gorilla (Gorilla beringei beringei). Confirmatory PCR and sequencing revealed two distinct B. coli-specific sequences (ITS-1, sub-types A0 and B1). This represents the first report of B. coli in this species, raising the possibility of infection from a reservoir host.

Chlamydiosis is a significant factor contributing to the decline of koala (Phascolarctos cinereus) populations in Australia but has not previously been reported in South Australia. We describe conjunctivitis in three wild koalas from South Australia, with Chlamydia pecorum identified by quantitative PCR.

Squirrelpox virus (SQPV) is a significant factor in red squirrel (Sciurus vulgaris) population declines but has previously been unconfirmed in the Republic of Ireland. In 2011 a juvenile red squirrel from Wicklow presented with facial, perivulval, and nail bed SQPV skin lesions confirmed by histopathology, PCR, and electron microscopy.