Historically, therapeutic monitoring for prescribed eradication treatment of Helicobacter in cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus) with associated gastritis has been accomplished only through endoscopic biopsies. The ¹³C-urea breath test (UBT) can offer an alternative to repeated biopsies for therapeutic monitoring. Five male and five female cheetahs and one male Sumatran tiger (Panthera tigris) were studied. All were clinically healthy before and after this investigation. Breath samples of end-tidal expiration were taken before and after administration of a ¹³C-enriched urea solution through a gastroesophageal tube. Twenty-milliliter breath samples were taken at 10, 20, 30, and 40 min after administration of the urea solution. The results of the breath analysis were compared with the results of rapid urease testing, histopathologic examination, and impression smears of gastric biopsies taken at the time of the breath test. The sensitivity and specificity for the ¹³C-UBT in this investigation were 100%, and the positive predictive value and negative predictive value were both 100%. Although the ¹³C-UBT is a good noninvasive diagnostic tool for monitoring the presence of Helicobacter sp. in the gastric mucosa, endoscopy should still be used for initial diagnosis and grading of gastritis and for monitoring the progression of disease in cheetahs. The ¹³C-UBT is a valuable, simple, accurate, and sensitive tool for monitoring eradication of Helicobacter during therapy for clinical gastritis.

Black-footed ferrets (Mustela nigripes) are highly susceptible to sylvatic plague, caused by the bacterium Yersinia pestis, and this disease has severely hampered efforts to restore ferrets to their historic range. A study was conducted to assess the efficacy of vaccination of black-footed ferrets against plague using a recombinant protein vaccine, designated F1-V, developed by personnel at the U.S. Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases. Seven postreproductive black-footed ferrets were immunized with the vaccine, followed by two booster immunizations on days 23 and 154; three control black-footed ferrets received a placebo. After the second immunization, antibody titers to both F1 and V antigen were found to be significantly higher in vaccinates than controls. On challenge with 7,800 colony-forming units of virulent plague by s.c. injection, the three control animals died within 3 days, but six of seven vaccinates survived with no ill effects. The seventh vaccinate died on day 8. These results indicate that black-footed ferrets can be immunized against plague induced by the s.c. route, similar to fleabite injection.

Serum collected from 68 thick-billed parrots (Rhynchopsitta pachyrhyncha) from 15 institutions was analyzed for ionized Ca (iCa), total Ca (tCa), P, total protein (TP), albumin (Alb), parathyroid hormone (PTH), and vitamin D₃. Values were not distributed normally; 95% frequency intervals were as follows: iCa (0.82–1.3 mmol/L), tCa (1.37–2.09 mmol/L,), P (0.35–1.75 mmol/L), TP (21–39 g/L), Alb (9–13 g/L), PTH (0–65.68 pmol/L), and vitamin D₃ (5.2–51 nmol/L). Sixty percent (±7.5%) of tCa was ionized. Female thick-billed parrots had significantly higher mean iCa (1.11 mmol/L, n = 22) than male thick-billed parrots (1.05 mmol/L, n = 32). tCa and iCa values in thick-billed parrots were lower than the reported values for other psittacine species. A significant positive linear relationship existed between Alb–TP and iCa–tCa ratios. A significant inverse linear relationship was also identified between the tCa–P ratio and PTH. These findings are consistent with known domestic avian Ca physiology.

Captive juvenile African black-footed penguins (Spheniscus demersus) housed in an outdoor enclosure at the Baltimore Zoo have an average 50% mortality from avian malarial (Plasmodium sp.) infection each year without intense monitoring for disease and chemotherapeutic intervention. During the 1996 malaria transmission season, the safety and efficacy of an anti-circumsporozoite (CSP) DNA vaccine encoding the Plasmodium gallinaceum CSP protein against P. relictum were studied. The goal was to reduce clinical disease and death without initiating sterile immunity after release into an area with stable, endemic avian malaria. The birds were monitored for adverse clinical signs associated with vaccination, the stimulation of an anti-CSP antibody response, and protection afforded by the vaccine. The presence of P. relictum in trapped culicine mosquitoes within the penguin enclosure was monitored to assess parasite pressure. Among the vaccinated penguins, the parasitemia rate dropped from approximately 50% to approximately 17% despite intense parasite pressure, as determined by mosquito infection rate. During the year of the vaccine trial, no mortalities due to malaria occurred and no undesirable vaccination side effects occurred. This is the first trial of an antimalarial vaccine in a captive penguin colony.

Fentanyl is approved for transmucosal use in the United States as a preanesthetic agent in human pediatric patients and in adults for breakthrough cancer pain. Using this formulation in three species of great ape, including eight orangutans (Pongo pygmaeus), nine chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes), and two gorillas (Gorilla gorilla), fentanyl was offered transmucosally at an intended dose of 10–15 μg/kg based on estimated body weight. The animals were trained to accept and suck slowly on a piece of placebo candy, given as a treat, after an overnight fast. On the day of the study, the animals were given the lollipop formulation of fentanyl. The resulting plasma concentrations of fentanyl supported transmucosal absorption, similar to that reported in humans. This study provides an alternative sedative regimen and yielded half-life data of transmucosal fentanyl in great apes. Although transmucosal fentanyl was a useful adjunct for sedating orangutans and gorillas, its acceptance by chimpanzees before chemical immobilization was suboptimal and unpredictable.

The type of equipment used to transport circus tigers, environmental factors experienced during transport, and resultant body temperatures of tigers transported were surveyed during hot and cold weather conditions with six different circus tiger acts. Dataloggers recorded interior and exterior temperatures, relative humidity, and radiant heat at 5-min intervals during each trip. Microdataloggers fed to the tigers recorded body temperature and were recovered from eight Bengal (Panthera tigris tigris), Siberian (P. t. altaica), or Bengal–Sumatran (P. t. tigris–P. t. sumatrae) cross tigers from four different circuses. Three basic types of systems were used by circus acts to transport tigers: freestanding cages mounted on wheels that were winched or pushed into a semitrailer for transport, cages built into the trailer itself, and weather-resistant units transported on flatbed railcars or flatbed truck trailers. The highest temperature encountered inside a trailer was 37.3°C in hot weather conditions, but overall, temperatures were usually between 21.1–26.7°C. Temperature inside the trailers did not appear to be affected by movement and did not generally exceed ambient temperatures, indicating adequate insulation and passive ventilation. During cold weather trips, the lowest temperature inside the trailers was −1.1°C, occurring during an overnight stop. Interior temperatures during cold weather transport stayed 2–6°C warmer than ambient temperatures. The body temperatures of the tigers were unaffected by extreme temperatures. The only changes observed in body temperature were increases of 1–2°C caused by activity and excitement associated with loading in several groups of tigers, regardless of whether it was hot or cold weather. Whenever measured, carbon monoxide and ammonia were below the detectable concentrations of 10 and 1 ppm, respectively. Overall, transport did not appear to have any adverse effects on the tigers' ability to thermoregulate.

Glomerular filtration rate (GFR), renal plasma flow (RPF), and the endogenous creatinine clearance (CCr) rate were determined in 13 captive cheetahs, Acinonyx jubatus jubatus (seven females and six males, 1.5–7.5 yr of age, x̄ = 5.02 yr), during general anesthesia with Telazol® and isoflurane by measuring the urinary clearances of inulin, para-aminohipppuric acid, and endogenous creatinine, respectively. Methods to determine GFR, RPF, and endogenous CCr in captive cheetahs were evaluated, and the relationship between GFR and CCr for this species was determined. The GFR and the RPF were stable during the procedure, with mean values of 1.59 ± 0.17 ml/min/kg body weight and 5.12 ± 1.15 ml/min/kg body weight, respectively. Although the mean value for CCr (1.47 ± 0.20 ml/min/kg body weight) was significantly less than the corresponding value for GFR, the mean difference (0.11 ± 0.02 ml/min/kg weight) between the two measurements was slight, and the values were highly correlated (R² = 0.928; P < 0.0001). The measurement of CCr in cheetahs should provide a reliable estimate of GFR, facilitating the early detection of renal disease in this species.

Amikacin, an aminoglycoside antimicrobial, was administered to a killer whale (Orcinus orca) and a beluga whale (Delphinapterus leucas) for the treatment of clinical signs consistent with gram-negative aerobic bacterial infections. Dosage regimens were designed to target a maximal plasma concentration 8–10 times the minimum inhibitory concentrations of the pathogen and to reduce the risk of aminoglycoside toxicity. Allometric analysis of published pharmacokinetic parameters in mature animals yielded a relationship for amikacin's volume of distribution, in milliliters, given by the equation Vd = 151.058(BW)^1.043. An initial dose for amikacin was estimated by calculating the volume of distribution and targeted maximal concentration. With this information, dosage regimens for i.m. administration were designed for a killer whale and a beluga whale. Therapeutic drug monitoring was performed on each whale to assess the individual pharmacokinetic parameters. The elimination half-life (5.99 hr), volume of distribution per bioavailability (319 ml/kg), and clearance per bioavailability (0.61 ml/min/kg) were calculated for the killer whale. The elimination half-life (5.03 hr), volume of distribution per bioavailability (229 ml/kg), and clearance per bioavailability (0.53 ml/ min/kg) were calculated for the beluga whale. The volume of distribution predicted from the allometric equation for both whales was similar to the calculated pharmacokinetic parameter. Both whales exhibited a prolonged elimination half-life and decreased clearance when compared with other animal species despite normal renal parameters on biochemistry panels. Allometric principles and therapeutic drug monitoring were used to accurately determine the doses in these cases and to avoid toxicity.

An umbrella cockatoo (Cacatua alba) and two cockatiels (Nymphicus hollandicus) were presented with rapidly enlarging masses of the head or wing joints. Historic trauma to these areas was confirmed in two cases. All birds were >2 yr of age, and two were female. Cytologic examination of fluid aspirated from masses in two cases was described as serosanguineous cytologically but failed to reveal inflammation, neoplasia, or microorganisms. Radiographic evaluation of these masses included proliferation and lysis of bone, suggestive of a neoplastic process. Histopathologic examination of surgically excised tissues revealed proliferative new bone and an absence of neoplastic tissue in all cases, consistent with aneurysmal bone cyst formation. Despite the guarded prognosis reported for other companion animals, these case results suggest a good prognosis for aneurysmal bone cyst in psittaciformes. Complete surgical excision and histopathologic examination is recommended for definitive diagnoses of aneurysmal bone cyst. Postoperative bandaging and rational antibiotic use are indicated to prevent excessive motion and secondary infection of affected sites, respectively.

Traumatic elbow luxation was diagnosed in a common squirrel monkey (Saimiri sciurus) and a bonnet macaque (Macaca radiata). In the common squirrel monkey, the luxation was complicated by an ulnar fracture and would not stay reduced when attempts at closed reduction were made. The luxation was surgically reduced and a transarticular type I external skeletal fixator was placed. In the bonnet macaque, closed reduction was performed and the elbow was stabilized using a cast. Both monkeys regained good function of the injured elbows.

A 29-yr-old chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes) presented after an acute onset of right facial and forearm paresis that progressed to paralysis within 24 hr, with subsequent development of right leg paresis. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of the head revealed an abnormal region of increased signal intensity in the left frontal, parietal, and temporal cerebral hemispheres, corresponding to the vascular territory of the middle cerebral artery, with resultant compression of the left lateral ventricle. The findings were consistent with a cerebral infarct (stroke). MRI is the most sensitive test for early detection of cerebral changes due to ischemia and was essential in obtaining a diagnosis in this case. The chimpanzee responded well to treatment with long-term anticoagulant aspirin and a short, tapered course of prednisone and regained full gross motor function.

A 15-yr-old female Sumatran tiger (Panthera tigris sumatrae) was presented to the Boren Veterinary Medical Teaching Hospital at Oklahoma State University with a 3-wk history of progressive hind limb weakness. Neurologic evaluation was limited to review of videotape that demonstrated weakness and ataxia with conscious proprioceptive deficits of the tiger's pelvic limbs. Spinal radiography demonstrated disc space narrowing, and myelography demonstrated a large extradural compressive lesion at the level of L_2-3. Computed tomography did not reveal bone involvement. Surgery was performed to decompress the spinal cord and obtain a definitive diagnosis. A right hemilaminectomy was performed after a dorsal approach to the lumbar spine. Histologic examination of the mass revealed a consolidated extradural spinal hematoma, presumed to be secondary to intervertebral disc herniation. Despite incomplete resection of the mass and plastic deformation of the spinal cord, the tiger returned to normal ambulation within 3 wk of surgical decompression.

Fifteen captive female African hedgehogs (Atelerix albiventris), 3- to 5-yr-old, were diagnosed with proliferative uterine lesions (n = 28). Lesions were associated with vaginal bleeding in all cases, hematuria in 11 of 13 cases, and weight loss in 7 of 12 cases. Lesions were multiple in eight cases and single in seven cases. The lesions identified were 13 adenosarcomas, 7 endometrial stromal sarcomas, 6 endometrial polyps, 1 adenoleiomyosarcoma, and 1 adenoleiomyoma. In one animal with adenosarcoma, peritoneal seeding was detected at the time of hysterectomy. Mean survival time was 303 days (n = 10). Ovariohysterectomy allows prolonged survival of hedgehogs with uterine tumors.

An umbilical hernia was diagnosed in a 2-wk-old Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) by physical and ultrasonographic examinations. Umbilical herniorrhaphy was elected because the defect was large (approximately 7 cm long and 10 cm deep) and could potentially lead to incarceration of an intestinal loop. General anesthesia was induced with a combination of ketamine, xylazine, and diazepam and maintained with isoflurane in oxygen. The hernial sac was explored and contained fibrous tissue, fat, and an intestinal loop but no adhesions. The hernial sac was resected and the body wall closed using the technique of simple apposition. Following a superficial wound infection, the surgical site healed with no further complications.

Computed tomography (CT) was used to diagnose the cause of lameness in a radiated tortoise (Geochelone radiata) and to determine the extent of shell and skeletal trauma in two snapping turtles (Chelydra serpentina). The radiated tortoise's lameness was ultimately attributed to luxation of the right-shoulder joint that was not detected during plain film radiography. Axial and appendicular fractures were identified in one of the snapping turtles that were not detected during plain film radiography. In each patient, the information obtained during CT provided important diagnostic, therapeutic, or prognostic information.

Laser rhinoscopy was used to treat a nasal obstruction in a captive California sea lion (Zalophus californianus). The rehabilitated, adult, female sea lion developed mucopurulent, intermittent, bilateral nasal discharge and functional nasal obstruction 20 mo after acquisition by the Aquarium of the Pacific in Long Beach, California. A 3-mm-thick soft tissue structure spanning the region between the soft and hard palates, a deviated nasal septum, and several nasopharyngeal polyps were identified. Biopsies and cultures of the obstructive web showed ulcerative granulation tissue with suppurative inflammation, bacterial infection, and a partial section of an arthropod larva (not speciated). Laser rhinoscopy was performed to relieve the caudal nasopharyngeal obstruction and ablate the polyps. The sea lion appeared to breathe through the nares with lessened nasal discharge for a period of 6 wk after laser therapy, but within 8 wk the mucopurulent nasal discharge returned, the obstruction had reformed, and the sea lion was euthanized. Postmortem examination confirmed antemortem diagnoses of caudal nasopharyngeal obstruction secondary to inflammatory tissue; however, no additional sections of arthropod parasites were located microscopically.

An adult, captive-born Sumatran tiger (Panthera tigris sumatrae) had been ataxic for approximately 3 mo and had been self-mutilating after an acute onset of unilateral paresis and Horner's syndrome. Histologic lesions in the cervical spinal cord were consistent with fibrocartilaginous embolic myelopathy (FCEM), and they included the presence of cartilaginous occlusion of spinal blood vessels. This is the first reported case of FCEM in a large felid and specifically a Sumatran tiger.

An acute rectal mucosal prolapse in a 26-yr-old Indian rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis) was repaired surgically by mucosal resection. Two days postoperatively, suture line dehiscence accompanied by substantial hemorrhage was managed by ligation and hemostasis during a second immobilization. Medical management with nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs and diuretics reduced the mucosal edema and prevented recurrence of the prolapse. A combination of butorphanol and detomidine provided excellent reversible chemical restraint for this animal.

A protocol was developed to control an exotic tick (Aponomma komodoense) infestation on three Komodo dragons (Varanus komodoensis) at a Florida zoo without direct application of acaricides to the lizards. With the Komodo dragons secured within their indoor pens, their outdoor enclosures and the exhibition area were sprayed with a formulation of permethrin prepared specifically for use with reptiles. Once the acaricide had dried, the Komodo dragons were allowed to return to their outdoor enclosures, whereupon the indoor pens were closed and sprayed with the same formulation. After this initial treatment, the outdoor and indoor areas were retreated every 2 wk and 8–10 wk, respectively, for 6 mo. The initial on-host and off-host tick count of 301 ticks fell to 0 ticks after 6 mo. No adverse effects of the acaricide treatment were observed on the lizards during daily monitoring.