We investigated the causes of mortality of the Arabian gazelle (Gazella arabica) based on the necropsy records of 1,218 captive animals at King Khalid Wildlife Research Centre, Saudi Arabia, from 1988 to 2011. The largest number of deaths was attributed to trauma (391, 32.1%). Trauma was subdivided into the following three categories: collisions with fences (144, 11.8%); predator activity (91, 7.5%), and exhibit–mate aggression (156, 12.8%). Respiratory infection was another important cause of mortality, accounting for 186 (15.3%) deaths. Respiratory infection was more prevalent during the winter season (November to March). Other causes of death included gastrointestinal diseases, such as clostridiosis and salmonellosis (108, 8.9%). Maternal neglect (104, 8.5%), chronic renal fibrosis (34, 2.8%), and stress-related pathologies (35, 2.9%), in particular, capture myopathy, were also important causes of mortality. Here, the importance of these findings for improvement of the captive management of this vulnerable Arabian species is discussed, and for the first time, salmonellosis in Arabian gazelles is reported.

The Blank Park Zoo began suffering mortalities in the spring of 2012 within a flock of 229 captive budgerigars (Melopsittacus undulatus) housed in an interactive public-feeding aviary. Clinical signs in affected birds included weakness, posterior paresis, inability to fly, or acute death. Gross and microscopic lesions were not initially apparent in acutely affected deceased birds. Many birds had evidence of trauma, which is now hypothesized to have been related to the birds' weakness. Investigation into the cause(s) of morbidity and mortality were complicated by the opening of a new interactive enclosure. For this reason, environmental conditions and husbandry protocols were heavily scrutinized. Microscopic examination of dead budgies later in the course of the investigation revealed mineralization of soft tissues consistent with hypervitaminosis D. Pooled serum analysis of deceased birds identified elevated vitamin D₃ levels. Vitamin D₃ analysis was performed on the feed sticks offered by the public and the formulated maintenance diet fed to the flock. This analysis detected elevated levels of vitamin D₃ that were 22.5-times the manufacturer's labeled content in the formulated diet. These findings contributed to a manufacturer recall of more than 100 formulated diets fed to a wide variety of domestic and captive wild animal species throughout the United States and internationally. This case report discusses the complexities of determining the etiology of a toxic event in a zoologic institution.

Hydrocoelom and lymphedema are common in amphibians. In the family Dendrobatidae at the National Aquarium, Baltimore, prevalence was 3.19% from 2005 to 2011. Complete review of all cases in dendrobatids from 01 January 2003 to 01 June 2011 at the National Aquarium identified annual incidence rate, associated signs, diagnostic findings, therapeutics, and outcomes using medical record review. Associated etiologies were assessed via available necropsy and histopathology reports. Hydrocoelom was defined as coelomic distention with fluid; lymphedema was defined as fluid accumulation in the lymph spaces. These two syndromes could occur concurrently, and no association between case success (36.5% overall) or etiology was found to contrast hydrocoelom and lymphedema. Species susceptibility varied, with increased prevalence and incidence rate in Adelphobates castaneoticus, Dendrobates auratus, and Phyllobates spp. D. auratus also had reduced case success overall (26.0%). Females experienced hydrocoelom and/or lymphedema at an attack rate more than three times that of males. Fluid aspiration for culture was the most predictive antemortem diagnostic to find infectious etiologies, but antemortem diagnostics were largely noncontributory in identifying other causes of fluid accumulation. Enrofloxacin treatment increased case success more than fivefold when compared to those not treated and was the only treatment positively associated with case success. Infectious etiology, renal disease, and gastrointestinal disease, including parasitism, were seen commonly on postmortem evaluation of cases. These findings underscore the importance of the ability to individually track and treat cases, with fluid culture and initiation of enrofloxacin therapy (10 mg/kg p.o. q. 24 hr) seen as the best first steps after presentation with hydrocoelom or lymphedema.

This study evaluated 79 captive gibbons (Hylobates, Nomascus, and Symphalangus spp.) within 30 North American zoological institutions for evidence of exposure to and possible infection with gibbon ape leukemia virus (GALV). Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISAs) on gibbon serum samples revealed the presence of antibodies against GALV antigens in 28% of animals, indicating previous exposure or possibly protective immunity to GALV. Virus detection in gibbon blood or serum using polymerase chain reaction (PCR) or co-culture of gibbon peripheral blood mononuclear cells with human cells was negative for all samples submitted. The majority (19/27, 70%) of animals with reported health conditions were clinically healthy at the time of sample collection. Historically accrued clinical data were used to assess association of diseases in gibbons antibody positive for GALV. The results suggest captive gibbons could mount an immune response to GALV and show no evidence of infection. There was no association with neoplastic conditions in seropositive animals. The potential role of gibbons as a reservoir for GALV and the role of GALV as an epizoonotic-zoonotic agent or as a contributor to gibbon ape morbidity and mortality are not substantiated by the study findings.

Primary and secondary cardiovascular diseases are not uncommon in birds. Although radiologic standards for heart width have been developed for mammals, they are still not available for many avian species. The purpose of this study was to establish normal reference values for cardiac size in budgerigar (Melopsittacus undulatus), one of the most popular pet bird species all over the world. After clinical and radiographic (lateral and ventrodorsal views) evaluations, 27 adult, clinically healthy budgerigars (10 females and 17 males) were included in this study. High-quality ventrodorsal and lateral radiographic projections were obtained. The cardiac and thoracic width, distance between third and fourth ribs, synsacrum width, coracoid width, and the distance between clavicle bones were measured on ventrodorsal radiographs. The ratio between cardiac width and other mentioned indices was calculated. Correlation of each anatomical index with the cardiac width was evaluated by linear regression model. Sex and weight were included in all models. Mean ± SD of cardiac width was 10.8 ± 0.6 mm, with lower and upper limits of 9.5 and 12.0 mm. The results showed a significant correlation between the cardiac width and the thoracic width (R² = 0.28; P = 0.005). There were no significant associations between weight, sex, and the heart width. The values and ratios obtained in this study can be used as a reference of normal cardiac size of budgerigar in radiology for detection of cardiomegaly in this bird.

Health data for free-living eastern box turtles (Terrapene carolina carolina) at the Maryland Zoo in Baltimore were analyzed. One hundred and eighteen turtles were captured on or near zoo grounds over the course of 15 yr (1996–2011), with recapture of many individuals leading to 208 total evaluations. Of the 118 individuals, 61 were male, 50 were female, and 7 were of undetermined sex. Of the 208 captures, 188 were healthy, and 20 were sick or injured. Complete health evaluations were performed on 30 turtles with physical examination records, complete blood counts (CBCs), and plasma biochemistry profiles. Eight animals were sampled more than once, yielding 40 total samples for complete health evaluations of these 30 individuals. The 40 samples were divided into healthy (N = 29) and sick (N = 11) groups based on clinical findings on physical examination. Samples from healthy animals were further divided into male (N = 17) and female (N = 12) groups. CBC and biochemistry profile parameters were compared between sick and healthy groups and between healthy males and females. Sick turtles had lower albumin, globulin, total protein (TP), calcium, phosphorous, sodium, and potassium than healthy animals. Sick turtles also had higher heterophil to lymphocyte ratios. Healthy female turtles had higher leukocyte count, eosinophil count, total solids, TP, globulin, cholesterol, calcium, and phosphorous than healthy males. Banked plasma from all 40 samples was tested for antibodies to Mycoplasma agassizii and Mycoplasma testudineum via enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. One sample from a clinically healthy female was antibody positive for M. agassizii; none were positive for M. testudineum. This study provides descriptive health data for eastern box turtles and CBC and biochemistry profile information for T. carolina carolina at and near the Maryland Zoo in Baltimore. It also reports low serologic evidence of exposure to mycoplasmosis.

Information regarding analgesics in pinnipeds is limited. This study aimed to establish the pharmacokinetic parameters of a single subcutaneous dose of sustained release buprenorphine (Buprenorphine SR®) in juvenile northern elephant seals (Mirounga angustirostris) with regard to its potential to provide long-lasting analgesia that requires infrequent dosing. Seals (n = 26) were administered a single dose of sustained release buprenorphine at 0.12 mg/kg s.c. Blood samples were collected from the extradural intervertebral vein at 0 hr and at three or four of the following time points: 0.5, 1, 2, 6, 12, 24, 36, 48, 60, 96, 120, and 144 hr. Seals were examined daily for systemic and local adverse reactions. Plasma was analyzed by liquid chromatography tandem–mass spectrometry for buprenorphine and norbuprenorphine concentrations. A noncompartmental analysis for pharmacokinetic parameters was calculated using standard methods and equations. An average maximum concentration of 1.21 ng/ml (0.3–2.9 ng/ml) was detected 12 hr postadministration. Concentrations were quantifiable up to 144 hr postadministration but were below those expected to provide analgesia in some other species. No systemic adverse effects were noted in healthy seals receiving sustained release buprenorphine. Cellulitis or abscesses at the injection site were observed in 6/26 (23%) seals between 24 and 168 hr postadministration. Adverse local effects suggest that this drug should be used with caution in northern elephant seals.

Trueperella (Arcanobacterium) pyogenes is a causative agent of suppurative infections in domestic and wild animals. In some populations of captive or free-ranging white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus), cranial abscess disease is an important source of mortality in adult males. Although the pathogenesis of this disease is poorly understood, T. pyogenes has been isolated from active infections with other opportunistic bacteria. In this study, bacteria associated with cranial abscess infections were identified, the prevalence of T. pyogenes associated with these infections was determined, and the presence of known virulence determinants in T. pyogenes isolates was ascertained. Using routine biochemical techniques seven bacterial species were identified from 65 samples taken from active cranial abscess infections of 65 male white-tailed deer. Trueperella pyogenes was recovered from 46 samples; in 32 samples it was the only bacterium species detected. Staphylococcus aureus was detected in 26 samples. From these samples, the presence of known and putative virulence genes of T. pyogenes—plo, nanH, nanP, cbpA, fimA, fimC, fimE, and fimG—was examined by conventional polymerase chain reaction. All T. pyogenes isolates were positive for the pyolysin genes plo, nanP, and fimA. Furthermore, nanH, fimA, fimC, and fimE were detected in over 70% of isolates. Of the isolates tested, 48% had genotypes containing all virulence genes except cbpA. The suggestive virulence potential of all isolates, coupled with the large number of pure cultures obtained, implies that T. pyogenes is a causative agent of cranial abscess disease.

Natural habitats of pangolins are rapidly deteriorating because of extensive farming, logging, and human construction activities. In addition, the illegal trading of pangolins substantially accelerated the decline of the pangolins' population in southeastern Asia. The maintenance of confiscated pangolins in rescue centers is currently a daunting task for veterinarians and conservation biologists. There is limited information in the literature about the reference values regarding the physiology of pangolins. The purpose of this study is to establish reliable hematologic and serum biochemical reference values for the Formosan pangolin (Manis pentadactyla pentadactyla). Blood samples were collected from 51 apparently healthy pangolins from a population of 117 rescued pangolins at the Taipei Zoo. Sex-related differences were observed in platelet count, alanine aminotransferase level, mean corpuscular hemoglobin concentration, and total protein level. Age-related differences were also noted; juveniles have significantly higher platelet counts and alkaline phosphatase levels than their adult counter parts. The hematologic and serum biochemical reference values for the Formosan pangolin presented in this study can be applied in the medical care of this important species during rescue attempts. It is the first systematic report of blood parameters of apparently healthy pangolins and provides a basis for future investigation of this species. The reference values reported in this study may also be applicable to other pangolin species in the genus Manis.

In 2006, five Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) were imported to Taronga Zoo, Australia, from Thailand. Pre-import and initial postarrival tuberculosis screening was performed by trunk wash (TW) culture and was negative for Mycobacterium tuberculosis. In April 2009, the ElephantTB STAT-PAK® (SP) assay was used to test the elephants. A 15.5-yr-old pregnant cow was reactive. TW frequency for this cow was increased from annually to quarterly. TW cultures remained negative on all other elephants. In February 2010, the Dual Path Platform® (DPP) VetTB assay was used for the first time, and the SP-reactive cow also reacted on the DPP. A SP was run concurrently and was reactive. All other elephants were nonreactive on both assays. Treatment was not initiated due to concern about the effect of antituberculous drugs on the fetus. Quarterly TW cultures continued. The cow gave birth on 2 November 2010. A routine TW on 24 November 2010 was culture positive for M. tuberculosis. Although previous shedding could not be ruled out, reactivation of latent infection or exacerbation of subclinical disease due to parturition was suspected. Treatment with isoniazid, pyrazinamide, rifampicin, and ethambutol commenced. A 12-mo treatment course was completed within a 15-mo period. The isolate was susceptible to these drugs and genotyped as a Beijing strain. Stored serum samples from 2004 and 2006 were tested retrospectively and were reactive on SP and DPP. TW, SP, and DPP screening frequency increased to monthly for the positive cow on commencement of treatment in January 2011. Monthly serum biochemistry indicated drug-induced hepatitis. Therapeutic drug monitoring was conducted to ensure therapeutic levels were achieved. The infant calf was reactive on DPP, but TW culture negative, and was not treated. Serial DPP results for the cow and calf during and after treatment indicated that the antibody levels were declining, suggesting a favorable response to therapy in the dam, and that the origin of the antibodies in the calf were maternal, rather than a response to infection.

Eight free-ranging timber rattlesnakes (Crotalus horridus) from two geographically isolated Massachusetts populations were observed with skin lesions located primarily on the head but occasionally also on the lateral and ventral surfaces of the body. The snakes underwent health assessments that included physical examination, clinical pathology, full body radiographs, and full thickness biopsies of skin lesions. Each snake had fungal elements present histologically in tissue sections from skin lesions. Ophidiomyces ophiodiicola was identified from skin lesions using polymerase chain reaction in all eight snakes.

A 3-yr-old, intact male Matschie's tree kangaroo (Dendrolagus matschiei) was examined for a 1-wk history of intermittent lethargy and tachypnea. An echocardiogram revealed concentric hypertrophy of the left ventricular free wall and interventricular septum. These findings were compared to measurements from healthy Matschie's tree kangaroos, supporting a diagnosis of hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. At the time of publication, the patient has been managed for over 11.5 yr, using a combination of enalapril, furosemide, diltiazem, and diet modifications. Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy should be considered as a differential diagnosis in tree kangaroos exhibiting signs of cardiovascular or respiratory distress. This case represents the first report of antemortem diagnosis and successful management of hypertrophic cardiomyopathy in a Matschie's tree kangaroo.

A case of fatal Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection was diagnosed postmortem in a captive 33-yr-old male black rhinoceros (Diceros bicornis) after a nonspecific illness in April 2013. Retrospective testing of sera from this individual revealed that it had been seroreactive by ElephantTB STAT-PAK, dual-path platform VetTB, and multi-antigen print immunoassay for over 12 yr prior to death. Although samples collected at the time of intradermal tuberculin test performed in October 2000 were nonreactive in all three serologic assays, the animal appeared to seroconvert approximately 2.5 wk after the skin test administration. The antibody response remained detectable for the duration of the animal's life (12 yr), indicating ongoing immunologic stimulation. The current case report supports the use of serologic assays for diagnosis of TB in black rhinoceros and may provide information for earlier detection. However, further research is needed to develop tools for recognition of mycobacterial infections in rhinoceros.

The waxy monkey frog (Phyllomedusa sauvagii) is an arboreal amphibian native to arid regions of South America, and it has developed behavioral and physiologic adaptations to permit survival in dry environments. These adaptations include a uricotelic nitrogen metabolism and unique cutaneous lipid excretions to prevent evaporative water loss. Uroliths are a rare finding in amphibians. Six adult, presumed wild-caught waxy monkey frogs housed in a museum animal collection were diagnosed with cystic urolithiasis over a 7-yr period, and a single animal was diagnosed with four recurrent cases. Six cases were identified incidentally at routine physical or postmortem examination and four cases were identified during veterinary evaluation for coelomic distension, lethargy, anorexia, and increased soaking behavior. Calculi were surgically removed from three frogs via cystotomy, and a single frog underwent three cystotomies and two cloacotomies for recurrent urolithiasis. Two frogs died within the 24-hr postoperative period. Two representative calculi from a single frog were submitted for component analysis and found to consist of 100% ammonium urate. In the present report, cystic calculi are proposed to be the result of a high-protein diet based on a single invertebrate source, coupled with uricotelism, dehydration, increased cutaneous water loss, body temperature fluctuations facilitating supersaturation of urine, and subsequent accumulation and precipitation of urogenous wastes within the urinary bladder. Surgical cystotomy represents a short-term treatment strategy for this condition. Preventative measures, such as supplying a diversified and balanced diet in addition to environmental manipulation aimed at promoting adequate hydration, are anticipated to be more-rewarding management tools for cystic urolithiasis in the waxy monkey frog.

Uropygial, or preen, glands are found in a variety of avian species including penguins. These glands have a multitude of functions and can develop a variety of conditions including impaction, rupture, adenitis, squamous metaplasia, and neoplasia of various types, with squamous cell carcinoma the most commonly reported. A case series of uropygial gland squamous cell carcinoma in five penguins at the Wildlife Conservation Society's Central Park Zoo is described. Most birds were aged (>10 yr) with a history of chronic, recurrent uropygial gland problems including impaction, rupture, abscess formation, or a combination of conditions. Before and after neoplasia diagnosis, these cases were managed conservatively, and palliative care was provided. Because many of these cases were preceded by chronic inflammation, it is possible this inflammation predisposed the uropygial gland to neoplastic transformation, and more aggressive treatment early in the disease process may therefore be warranted.

Despite the occurrence of clinical disease in a wide range of carnivore hosts, only vague accounts of clinical canine parvovirus type 2 (CPV-2) in any otter species have been reported in the literature. Over the course of 25 days, nine Asian small-clawed otters (Aonyx cinerea) presented for evaluation of inappetence, lethargy, vomiting, and diarrhea. A diagnosis of canine parvovirus type 2c was made based on electron microscopy, polymerase chain reaction, and DNA sequencing of group fecal samples. Supportive care was provided based on individual clinical assessment and included subcutaneous crystalline fluid therapy, antiemetics, antibiotics, appetite stimulants, and a neuraminidase inhibitor. Five of the nine otters exhibited moderate to severe disease requiring treatment, and one case was fatal despite supportive efforts. In light of this case report, CPV-2 should be recognized as a potential cause of gastrointestinal disease in Asian small-clawed otters.

An Argentine boa (Boa constrictor occidentalis) of 5 yr 7 mo of age was presented for respiratory problems and regurgitation. Radiographs revealed evidence of cardiomegaly and pneumonia. Blood smear examination revealed the presence of intracytoplasmic inclusion bodies in peripheral lymphocytes, consistent with inclusion body disease. Cultures of a tracheal wash sample resulted in growth of Ochrobactrum intermedium and Pseudomonas putida. Echocardiographic examination revealed a large vegetative lesion on the right atrioventricular valve with valvular insufficiency, a mildly dilated right atrium, and pulmonary hypertension. Postmortem examination confirmed the presence of pneumonia and bacterial endocarditis with dystrophic mineralization of the right atrioventricular valve, associated with different bacteria than those cultured from the tracheal wash. The present case is the first report of endocarditis in a boa constrictor and contributes to the rare reports of cardiac disease in snakes.

A 2-yr-old paca (Cuniculus paca) was presented for necropsy with a history of sudden death. Gross examination revealed multifocal, transmural, well-demarcated, white, soft nodules scattered along the length of the small intestine. The liver also had similar nodules associated with the capsular and cut surface. Histologic evaluation of several organs, including the intestine, liver, lung, kidney, adrenal gland, and lymph nodes, was consistent with disseminated yersiniosis. In addition, aerobic bacterial culture of liver and lung tissue yielded heavy growth of Yersinia pseudotuberculosis. Yersinia pseudotuberculosis is a Gram-negative, enteric pathogen that can cause disease in a variety of terrestrial species including humans. Although systemic infection has been observed in rodent species, to our knowledge this is the first report of disseminated Y. pseudotuberculosis in a paca.

Magnetic resonance imaging was performed on a 15-yr-old captive female California sea lion (Zalophus californianus) with a 2-wk history of progressive paraparesis and a 9-mo history of exudative skin lesion on the left thoracic wall. Magnetic resonance images showed a well-defined muscle infiltrating lesion ventrolateral to the seventh cervical to the third thoracic vertebra on the left side, which extended through the left intervertebral foramina C7 to T3 into the vertebral canal, causing spinal cord compression and displacement as well as inflammation of the spinal cord and nerves. This lesion surprisingly caused no forelimb deficits. Differential diagnoses included abscess formation or neoplasia. Pathologic examination revealed chronic focal purulent meningitis associated with widespread paraspinal fistulous inflammation originating from a chronic dermal ulcer. Mainly Escherichia coli var. haemolytica and Clostridium perfringens were identified as the underlying agents.

Preventive healthcare recommendations for zoo felids include vaccination against primary viral diseases that affect domestic felids. Although associated with a more-substantial immune response in their domestic counterparts, use of modified live virus vaccines (MLV) in nondomestic carnivores can result in vaccine-induced viral disease. This case report details a feline herpesvirus and calicivirus outbreak in two black-footed cat (Felis nigripes) kittens and their dam following use of an MLV in the kittens. Clinical signs included anorexia, nasal discharge, sneezing, and tachypnea. Patient history, clinical signs, real-time polymerase chain reaction results, and histopathologic evaluation of tissues confirmed the diagnosis. Although unable to definitively prove that the disease observed in these cases was caused by the MLV, there is strong temporal and circumstantial evidence that this was the case. This outbreak of feline upper respiratory infection following vaccination with a multivalent MLV resulted in significant morbidity and mortality, serving as an important reminder that recombinant or killed vaccines are the safest choice for use in nondomestic species, particularly in kittens.

Osteoarthritis is a major cause of chronic lameness in Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) in captivity worldwide. Radiology and other imaging technologies are of limited use in the early diagnosis of this condition in elephants. Collagen II is a major component of articular cartilage. The degradation and formation of collagen II can be monitored by the measurement of specific biomarkers in biologic fluids such as serum. It is possible that these biomarkers could also prove useful in identifying disease in elephants. In this study two commercially available immunoassays which measure a marker of collagen II degradation (C2C) and a marker of collagen II formation (CPII) were evaluated in Asian elephants. The ability of the assays to detect and measure C2C and CPII in the serum of Asian elephants was confirmed. Median serum concentration of C2C was 148 ng/L in nonlame elephants (n = 33) and 91.2 ng/L in lame elephants (n = 7). The difference was statistically significant (P = 0.0002). Median serum concentration of CPII was 519.3 ng/L in nonlame elephants and 318.7 ng/L in lame elephants. The difference was also statistically significant (P = 0.039). Whereas CPII concentrations in lame elephants mirrored findings from human and animal osteoarthritis studies, C2C concentrations did not. Further studies which evaluate these and other similar biomarkers are necessary to elucidate their usefulness in the diagnosis of osteoarthritis in proboscidae.

An adult, female, free-ranging red-tailed hawk (Buteo jamaicensis) was presented to a rehabilitation facility for an inability to stand. On examination, it displayed bilateral exaggeration of the pelvic limb reflexes with extensor muscle rigidity, intact superficial pain response, and positive withdrawal reflexes. A complete blood count identified moderate leukocytosis characterized by moderate heterophilia. No abnormalities were appreciable on radiographic evaluation. After initial improvement, it regressed and was euthanized 27 days after presentation. Necropsy and histologic investigation identified reduction in the diameter of the vertebral canal and spinal cord at cervical segments 8–9 with coalescing granulomas and intralesional acid-fast bacilli within the intertrabecular space, left side of the clavicular air sac, and cranial left lung. Bacterial culture and genetic sequencing from respiratory lesions identified Mycobacterium avium avium. Real time-polymerase chain reaction of paraffin-fixed spinal tissue tested positive for M. avium complex. Mycobacteriosis should be considered when peripheral neurologic deficits are present in raptors.

A 4-mo-old red fox (Vulpes vulpes) was found recumbent after a vehicular accident. Radiology revealed several limb fractures and the fox underwent surgery after 24 hr of initial stabilization. Premedication consisted of dexmedetomidine and morphine. Anesthesia was induced with ketamine and midazolam and maintained with isoflurane. Lidocaine, bupivacaine, and morphine were administered epidurally and further analgesia was provided with meloxicam. The heart rate and respiratory rate of the fox remained stable during surgery and, except for a mild hypothermia, the recovery from anesthesia was uneventful. The postoperative pain scores were low and the animal was transported to a rehabilitation facility and eventually released to the wild. The low pain scores postoperatively should be attributed to the successful application of epidural anesthesia and analgesia.

Wild-caught crystal jellyfish (Aequorea victoria) arrived at the John G. Shedd Aquarium infested with hyperiid amphipods (Hyperia medusarum), which were inadvertently introduced into a system containing several jellyfish species. Affected systems were treated with milbemycin oxime (Interceptor® tablets for dogs 51–100 lbs, Novartis Animal Health US, Inc., Greensboro, North Carolina 27408, USA), a treatment prescribed for red bug (Tegastes acroporanus) infestation in corals. Two treatments using one 25-mg aliquot of Interceptor per 10 gallons of tank water administered 6–7 days apart were completed. Overall, treatment to eradicate the parasite from the affected systems was successful. Further studies evaluating the tolerance of jellyfish to milbemycin oxime, particularly in small juvenile Eutonina indicans and Aurelia aurita, are warranted. Based on clinical observations, there were more negative effects associated with the treatment in the hydrozoans than in the scyphozoans.

A 10-yr-old tamandua (Tamandua tetradactyla) presented with severe lethargy and ataxia. Severe anemia (9% hematocrit) was diagnosed and ultimately resolved with the administration of a whole blood transfusion from conspecific and additional blood replacement products (Oxyglobin®). This is the first described use of a whole blood transfusion in an edentate.

This case report describes a new physical therapy technique, specifically the Wolfe Kinetic Technique™, as adjunctive therapy in the treatment of severe osteoarthritis in a 20-yr-old Komodo dragon (Varanus komodoensis). This animal was managed with oral analgesics for 3 yr with fair to minimal response over time. Due to worsening of lameness and mobility, physical therapy was initiated. Ten treatment sessions were administered at 1-wk intervals. Within 1 mo the Komodo dragon exhibited marked improvement in gait and function, increased responsiveness to his environment, and increased mobility which continued to improve over the subsequent sessions. Although outcomes could not be measured by standardized objective measures, this study provides a reference for treatment of future cases and a foundation for future research substantiating treatment practices in animal physical therapy.

A large abdominal mass was identified during an elective preventative health examination in a 25-yr-old female hybrid orangutan (Pongo pygmaeus). Sonographically, the mass was fluid-filled and a presumptive diagnosis of a dermoid cyst or cystic teratoma of an ovary was made. Exploratory laparotomy, after assembly of a surgical team, confirmed that the 2.5-kg cystic mass was associated with the left ovary. Following ovariectomy, perioperative dissection of the mass revealed hair components, confirming the working diagnosis. Because the right ovary was slightly nodular and firmer than expected, and these germ cell tumors sometimes occur bilaterally, excision of the contralateral ovary was elected. Histopathology confirmed the left ovarian mass was a dermoid cyst; the right ovary contained a corpus hemorrhagicum but no evidence of neoplasia. Recovery was uneventful and the orangutan was prescribed hormone replacement therapy to mitigate potential problems associated with a chronic lack of estrogen and progesterone. This case report demonstrates the importance of elective examinations under anesthesia, even in well-trained great apes.

A 22-yr-old, captive-born, presumed female Hoffmann's two-toed sloth (Choloepus hoffmanni) presented in respiratory distress with severe dehydration and symptoms of hypotension. During treatment, dysphagia was noted and oral examination revealed enlarged palatine tonsils and mucosal plaques. Bloodwork showed a decreased sodium:potassium ratio, a low baseline cortisol, a decreased adrenocorticotropin response test, and a blunted aldosterone stimulation test. All values were compared to a healthy male Hoffmann's two-toed sloth at the same facility. Despite aggressive medical management and treatment for hypoadrenocorticism, the sloth was found deceased. Necropsy revealed abdominal effusion, multifocal plaques throughout the upper gastrointestinal tract, and testes. Histopathology showed marked adrenal cortical atrophy and intranuclear mucosal inclusions in the gastrointestinal tract; advanced molecular techniques did not uncover any viral etiologies. This is the first reported case of hypoadrenocorticism in a sloth.

A 14.5-yr-old female kinkajou (Potos flavus) was diagnosed with cholelithiasis after an episode of vomiting; diagnostics included biochemical analysis and abdominal ultrasound exam. Despite antimicrobial treatment, cholelithiasis led to cholecystitis. A cholecystotomy was performed to remove choleliths and inspissated bile. Morphological and spectroscopic properties of the choleliths were similar to those of gallstones from the brown pigment family and Streptococcus sp. and Escherichia coli were isolated from the bile. Biliary tract infection is directly related to pathogenesis of brown pigment gallstones. Serial ultrasound exams revealed that cholecystitis developed secondary to the presence of gallstones in the biliary tree. Despite full recovery postsurgery, the patient died 15 mo later from gallbladder necrosis. Based on the progression of this case, a cholecystectomy would be preferred over a cholecystotomy in similar cases, and the efficacy of long-acting antibiotics may not be adequate in nontarget species. Gallstones and biliary tract infection are rarely described in small domestic carnivores, and this is the first reported case in a kinkajou.

A 13-yr-old female Cape clawless otter (Aonyx capensis) presented with an acute mild right pelvic limb lameness that progressed to a non–weight-bearing lameness. Diagnosis of a ruptured cranial cruciate ligament (CCL) was made based on positive cranial drawer during physical examination and was supported by radiographs. A surgical repair with a tibial plateau leveling osteotomy (TPLO) and bone anchor with an OrthoFiber suture was performed. The tibial plateau angle was reduced from 30 to 5°. The otter returned to normal function after 12 wk of exercise restriction. Twelve months after surgery, the left CCL ruptured and a TPLO was performed. No complications developed after either surgery, and the otter had an excellent return to function. This is the first report of a cranial cruciate ligament rupture and TPLO procedure in a mustelid, supporting its application to noncanid and felid species.