As modern zoos evolved from menageries, quarantine practices were developed to protect animal collections from the introduction of diseases that might arrive with new animals from wild populations and, more recently, from other managed populations. As the understanding of, and ability to diagnose, diseases grew tremendously in recent decades, quarantine protocols became more stringent and standardized as the tolerance for disease introduction decreased. These practices resulted in healthier animal collections, and the introduction of transmissible pathogens of concern became rarer. Sustainable population management in zoos has further lessened the reliance on taking animals from the wild, and the knowledge of disease risk in such situations has deepened. Today animals being transferred between modern zoological institutions have well-documented medical histories complemented with robust collection health histories. This improved understanding has reduced concerns about disease transmission in many cases. Consequently, more formal use of risk analysis to drive transfer-related examination, diagnostic testing, and quarantine decision making was adopted by a number of zoos and aquariums that have modified their quarantine practices and use risk analysis to reduce quarantine requirements, in some cases moving animals directly into collections after transportation. This commentary discusses the rationale for and changes to quarantine processes for animal acquisitions in zoos and aquariums, using risk analysis to direct decision making.

Currently available tests for the diagnosis of inflammatory disease in reptiles are limited and poorly sensitive. However, a number of hematological and plasma biochemical analytes are validated in the diagnosis of inflammation in mammals. The objective of this study was to establish reference intervals for erythrocyte sedimentation rate, lactate, heat-precipitated fibrinogen, hematology, and plasma protein electrophoresis based on total protein by biuret method in 23 clinically healthy, captive gopher tortoises (Gopherus polyphemus) after successful rehabilitation and to determine differences by age, sex, and season. In order to investigate biological differences, samples were collected in April, July, and November. There were no sex differences in any measured analyte; however, there were significant differences by age and season. Immature animals (<2 kg) had significantly higher total protein, albumin : globulin ratio, pre-albumin, albumin, and α-1 globulin than adults. Tortoises sampled in the spring season had significantly higher total solids (refractometer) and lower eosinophils compared with animals sampled in the summer. Further investigation is required to determine the clinical utility of these analytes in the diagnosis of inflammation in this species.

The use of invertebrate hemolymph chemistry analysis has the potential to become a major diagnostic tool. The goal of this study was to generate statistically sound hemolymph reference ranges from healthy tarantulas. Hemolymph was drawn from wild caught, acclimatized, and apparently healthy female Chilean rose tarantulas Grammostola rosea (Walkenaer, 1837) (n = 43) using a modified technique. Hemolymph samples were separately analyzed using the Avian-Reptilian Profile Plus reagent rotor for VetScan® for the following chemistries: aspartate aminotransferase, bile acids, creatine kinase, uric acid, glucose, total calcium, phosphorus, total protein, albumin, potassium, and sodium. With this method the authors were able to establish statistically sound reference ranges for aspartate aminotransferase, creatine kinase, glucose, phosphorus, and total protein. Further in situ studies will determine the practical usability of these values in the evaluation of tarantula health.

The pathologic, molecular, and immunohistochemical findings associated with Neorickettsia helminthoeca are described in coatis (Nasua nasua). Tissue sections (small intestine, lungs, kidney, liver, and spleen) of coatis (n = 3) that died at the Bela Vista Biological Refuge, Foz do Iguaçu, Paraná, southern Brazil were routinely processed from histopathology. Selected formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded (FFPE) tissue sections of the small intestine, lungs, and spleen were used in an immunohistochemical (IHC) assay designed to identify the antigens of N. helminthoeca. Additionally, FFPE tissue sections of the small intestine were used to demonstrate antigens of canine parvovirus-2 (CPV-2) by IHC. Histopathology revealed chronic enteritis in all coatis. Parasitic enteritis was diagnosed in two coatis; one of these contained examples of a trematode within the lumen of the small intestine and the ovum of a trematode encysted in the intestinal mucosa. Other significant pathologic findings included interstitial pneumonia (n = 2) and pyogranulomatous splenitis (n = 1). Positive immunolabeling for N. helminthoeca was identified within macrophages of the small intestine and reticuloendothelial cells within the germinal centers of the spleen of all coatis; the intestinal trematode was N. helminthoeca IHC-positive. All pulmonary sections revealed negative immunolabeling for N. helminthoeca. Furthermore, the antigens of CPV-2 were not identified in the intestine of any coati. These findings indicate that these coatis were infected by N. helminthoeca, but since clinical and gross pathological findings were not recorded, it is uncertain if this pathogen produced clinical disease in this canid host; therefore, coatis may be asymptomatic or dead-end hosts for this organism.

Aspergillosis continues to be one of the most important causes of disease in captive penguins. As such, designing exhibits and holding areas that minimize the risk of aspergillosis is of great interest; however, very little has been published regarding this topic. The goal of this study was to assess total fungal spore loads as well as the loads of Aspergillus spp. encountered in multiple indoor and outdoor microenvironments around the exhibit for a large colony of African penguins (Spheniscus demersus). Air samples were collected via impaction at the microenvironments on a monthly basis over a 1-yr period. Results of this study indicated seasonal trends in both total fungal spore loads as well as Aspergillus spp. loads, with the lowest levels encountered during January through April. During the warmer, more humid spring, summer, and fall months when outdoor microenvironments experienced the highest fungal loads, the air-handling system and the pleated filters used indoors are thought to have reduced the fungal loads in the indoor microenvironments compared with the outdoor microenvironments. Additionally, surrounding planting beds were thought to contribute to the higher total fungal loads and Aspergillus spp. loads in the outdoor microenvironments. Results of this study are useful in understanding the factors that contribute to Aspergillus spp. loads in areas that house penguins, and can be used in guiding design, construction, and landscaping of penguin enclosures.

Cortisol is known to reflect the level of the stress response. However, measuring the cortisol concentration only once fails to provide sufficient information about the duration of the stress exposure. Moreover, handling is an acute stressor and increases cortisol secretion especially in wildlife species. Yet, in phocids reliable indicators are missing that reflect potential chronic effects of stress. The adrenal-derived steroid hormone dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) has been described as biomarker for the assessment of the stress status but has not been applied to marine mammal stress research. Therefore, DHEA, the sulfated precursor DHEAS and the cortisol/DHEA ratio were determined in serum of different seals. One group consisted of harbor (Phoca vitulina) and gray seals (Halichoerus grypus) that were habituated to human handling. The other two groups included healthy and free-ranging seals suffering from a disease. Blood samples were taken from 11 habituated (six males, five females), 17 wild_healthy (13 males, four females), and nine wild_diseased seals (four males, five females). No differences in serum cortisol levels could be detected between wild_healthy and wild_diseased seals. On the contrary, wild_diseased seals showed the lowest DHEA concentration compared to the other two groups. Wild_diseased seals also revealed the highest cortisol/DHEA ratio compared to the habituated_zoo (2,074.7 ± 351.4 vs. 121.5 ± 26.8, P < 0.001) and wild_healthy seals (827.9 ± 214.3, P < 0.01). DHEA and the cortisol/DHEA ratio may reflect differences in the functionality of the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis and therefore represent valuable tools for the assessment of stress-related effects in seals.

Cobalamin and folate are water-soluble vitamins that are useful indicators of chronic gastrointestinal (GI) function in humans and some animal species. Serum cobalamin and folate concentrations in an ex situ population of killer whales (Orcinus orca) were measured and factors that may affect their serum concentrations were identified. Serum samples (n = 104) were analyzed from killer whales (n = 10) both while clinically healthy and during periods of clinical GI disease as defined by clinical signs and fecal cytology. To characterize serum cobalamin and folate concentrations in clinically healthy animals, a mixed-model regression was used, with cobalamin and folate both significantly affected by weight (cobalamin: P < 0.0001, folate: P = 0.006) and season (cobalamin: P < 0.0001, folate: P < 0.0001). The marginal mean concentrations for cobalamin and folate across weight and season were 742 ± 53.6 ng/L and 30.2 ± 2.6 μg/L, respectively. The predicted 95% confidence intervals (CI) for these analytes were then compared with samples collected during periods of GI disease. Across individuals, 22% (2/9) of the folate and 80% (8/10) of the cobalamin samples from the animals with GI disease fell outside the 95% CI for the population. When comparing samples within an individual, a similar pattern presented, with 100% of cobalamin of the observed abnormal samples reduced compared to healthy animal concentration variability. The same was not true for folate. These results suggest that serum concentrations of cobalamin and folate may be useful minimally invasive markers to identify GI disease in killer whales, especially when values are compared within an individual.

Wild populations of Humboldt penguins (Spheniscus humboldti) on the coasts of Chile and Peru have been declining because of food scarcity caused by the El Niño Southern Oscillation and human interference. Part of conserving this vulnerable and threatened species is maintaining the health of penguins within zoo collections. A variety of cardiovascular diseases has been reported in individuals from the Spheniscidae family including ventricular septal defects, Dirofilaria immitis infection, pulmonary hypertension, and valvular dysplasia, ultimately resulting in congestive heart failure. An accurate clinical picture of cardiovascular disease in Humboldt penguins requires diagnostics tailored to this specific species. The aim of this study was to establish a routine methodology for evaluating the cardiac silhouette of clinically healthy Humboldt penguins using vertebral heart scale (VHS), cardiocoelomic width ratio (CCWR), and a novel cardiac silhouette-to-keel ratio (CKR). Ventrodorsal and right lateral radiographs were taken of 10 mature Humboldt penguins during routine health evaluations. An echocardiographic exam of each penguin was performed to confirm that there was no evidence of cardiac structural remodeling from disease. Two penguins were excluded on the basis of echocardiographic findings; therefore, data from eight penguins were used to calculate objective cardiac measurements for the clinically healthy population. Right lateral radiographs were used to determine VHS (7.4–10.4) and CKR (3.4–4.4). Ventrodorsal radiographs were used for calculating CCWR (0.45–0.59). The excluded penguins had CCWRs that were outside the 95% confidence interval for the range generated by this study. This initial work supports that standardizing radiographic views provides objective measures for cardiac silhouette evaluation in this species. Further research in larger populations and comparison with birds having confirmed cardiac disease is needed to determine the value of these three measurement techniques in Humboldt penguins.

The Galapagos sea lion (Zalophus wollebaeki) is an otariid species endemic to the Galapagos archipelago and is currently listed as endangered. The ocular trematode Philophthalmus zalophi was recently reported to affect the survival of juvenile Galapagos sea lions on Santa Cruz Island, resulting in marked ophthalmic changes. This study evaluated the ophthalmic disease and histopathologic effects of P. zalophi on juvenile Galapagos sea lions in the largest rookery located on San Cristóbal Island. Twenty juvenile Galapagos sea lions (10 male and 10 female) were evaluated among five sites in the rookery El Malecón. Ophthalmic examination, including fluorescein staining and evaluation of the adnexa, cornea, and sclera, were performed on each eye. The presence, number, and location of ocular parasites were determined, and parasites were collected for identification. Conjunctival biopsy was performed on 11 animals: 2 that lacked parasites and gross lesions and 9 with both parasites and gross lesions. All parasites collected were confirmed as P. zalophi and identified in 80% (16/20) of the study animals and 70% (28/40) of the examined eyes. Philophthalmus zalophi was most frequently found attached to the nictitating membrane but also located on the palpebral conjunctiva or cornea. The most common clinical signs were varying degrees of conjunctival hyperemia (28/40 eyes), most frequently of the nictitating membrane and mucoid ocular discharge (12/40 eyes). The number of parasites was significantly associated with the degree of conjunctival hyperemia (P < 0.001). Histopathology of conjunctival biopsies revealed organized lymphoid follicles and lymphoplasmacytic infiltrates. The histopathologic changes and gross lesions were likely due to the parasite's attachment to the conjunctiva. This study provides additional details of P. zalophi infection in juvenile Galapagos sea lions. Further research is warranted to detail the life cycle of this parasite, transmission to sea lions, and potential treatment protocols.

The grey-headed flying fox (Pteropus poliocephalus) is a species endemic to coastal eastern Australia. This study presents a comprehensive set of biochemistry, hematology, and urinalysis biomarkers from which reference values were derived. Blood samples collected from free-ranging P. poliocephalus were submitted for hematology (n = 140) and plasma biochemistry (n = 161) and urine for urinalysis (n = 95). The values for P. poliocephalus were broadly consistent with those values published for other Australian Pteropus species. Statistically significant within-species age and sex effects were observed: adult P. poliocephalus had higher mean corpuscular volume, mean corpuscular hemoglobin, urea, creatinine, bilirubin, alanine transferase (ALT), protein, globulin, urinary specific gravity, and urinary ketones, whereas subadults had higher mean red blood cell, white blood cell (WBC), lymphocyte, and monocyte counts, and juveniles had higher mean neutrophil count and alkaline phosphatase; male P. poliocephalus had higher mean reticulocyte count, alanine transferase, glucose, and urinary ketones, whereas females had higher mean WBC, lymphocyte, and monocyte counts. The findings inform both clinical and research scenarios for P. poliocephalus in captivity or rehabilitation and for health assessments of free-living populations.

Infection by equine herpesvirus (EHV) strains (EHV-1, EHV-9) in ursid species, including polar bears (Ursus maritimus), has been associated with neurological disease and death. A serosurvey of captive exotic equid and polar bear populations in US Association of Zoos and Aquaria institutions was performed to determine the prevalence of EHV strains using quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) tests. Equid species surveyed included zebra (Equus spp.), Przewalski's wild horse (Equus ferus przewalskii), Persian onager (Equus hemionus), and Somali wild ass (Equus africanus somaliensis). A questionnaire regarding husbandry and medical variables was distributed to institutions housing polar bears. No polar bears tested positive for EHVs on qPCR of blood or nasal swabs. No exotic equids tested positive for EHVs on qPCR of blood, but two exotic equids (n = 2/22; 9%) tested positive for EHVs on qPCR of nasal swabs. On ELISA, polar bears infrequently were positive for EHV-1 (n = 5/38; 13%). Exotic equids were positive for EHV-4 on ELISA more frequently (n = 30/43; 70%) than for EHV-1 (n = 8/43; 19%). Nine institutions submitted samples from both exotic equids and polar bears, two of which had both exotic equids and polar bears positive for EHVs by ELISA. Each of these institutions reported that the polar bear and exotic equid exhibits were within 80 m of each other and that risk factors for fomite transmission between exhibits based on husbandry practices were present. One institution that did not house exotic equids had a polar bear test positive for EHV-1 on ELISA, with no history of exposure to exotic equids. Further testing of captive polar bears and exotic equids is recommended, as is modification of husbandry practices to limit exposure of polar bears to exotic equids.

Gabapentin is a first-line treatment for neuropathic pain and adjunct anticonvulsant medication in humans and other species. Gabapentin may have advantages over other analgesics because of its broad therapeutic range with limited adverse effects and wide availability as an oral formulation. This study determined the pharmacokinetics of gabapentin in Caribbean flamingos (Phoenicopterus ruber ruber) after a single-dose oral administration of either 15 mg/kg (n = 6) or 25 mg/kg (n = 6). Plasma gabapentin concentrations were determined using liquid chromatography with mass spectrometry, and pharmacokinetic analysis was performed using noncompartmental methods. Respectively for the 15 mg/kg and 25 mg/kg dose, mean peak plasma concentration (C_max) was (mean ± pseudo SD) 13.23 ± 1.47 and 24.48 ± 5.81 μg/ml; mean time to peak plasma concentration (T_max) was 0.50 ± 0.24 and 0.56 ± 0.28 hr; mean area under the curve (AUC) was 76.0 ± 26.3 and 114.7 ± 27.5 hr·μg/ml; and mean terminal half-life (T_1/2) was 3.39 ± 0.90 and 4.46 ± 1.12 hr. Based on the results of this study, gabapentin dosed at 25 mg/kg orally in most Caribbean flamingos is likely to maintain plasma concentrations above the therapeutic range established for humans for approximately 12 hr.

Meloxicam is a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug with preferential cyclooxygenase-2 inhibitory activity. It is frequently used in veterinary medicine, including in fish species. The efficacy and safety of meloxicam, however, has not yet been reported in adult fish. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the acute toxicity of a single intramuscular injection of meloxicam in goldfish (Carassius auratus auratus). Following 3 wk of acclimation, 32 goldfish were randomly assigned to two groups of 16 individuals. Fish from the treatment group received a single intramuscular injection of 5 mg/kg meloxicam, while the fish from the control group received a single intramuscular injection of a 0.9% sodium chloride solution using a similar volume (1 ml/kg). No external lesions, mortality, or modifications in behavior or position in the water column were noted during the following 72 hr. Three days after the initial injection, all fish were euthanized by immersion in a solution of tricaine methanesulfonate. Complete postmortem and histologic evaluations were performed for each fish. Hemorrhage and muscular necrosis were observed at the site of injection in fish from both groups. Multiple granulomas of undetermined etiology were detected in numerous organs from fish of both groups. No statistically significant differences were detected in regard to the lesions observed in these two groups. This study demonstrates that a single intramuscular injection of meloxicam at a dosage of 5 mg/kg does not cause acute toxicity in goldfish.

Kidney disease is common among captive cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus). Serum creatinine is the most common measurement to estimate glomerular filtration rate (GFR) because of the ease of its clinical use, but it is a crude estimate that only increases after significant disease is already present and is affected by extrarenal factors. Symmetric dimethylarginine (SDMA) is a renal biomarker in humans, dogs, and cats that correlates with serum creatinine and GFR and appears to be an earlier and more specific biomarker for kidney disease. Ninety-two banked serum samples from 11 cheetahs housed at the Oklahoma City Zoo from 1992 to 2012 were retrospectively analyzed. Histopathology results were available for 10/11 cheetahs, and all 10 had histologic renal lesions. General categories of renal lesions included glomerulosclerosis (7/10; 70%), amyloidosis (7/10; 70%), inflammatory (9/10; 90%), and oxalate nephrosis (2/10; 20%). SDMA immunoassay and mass spectrometry were measured for validation and compared with creatinine to assess for correlation. Serum creatinine concentrations were determined by enzymatic colorimetric methods. SDMA immunoassay was validated in cheetahs and correlated well with serum creatinine (R²=0.687; P < 0.0001). SDMA and serum creatinine measured from freeze-thawed stored samples show high correlation in individual cheetahs (R² = 0.972; P < 0.0001). These data support that SDMA could be a promising renal biomarker in cheetahs. Further research is warranted to investigate whether SDMA might be an earlier indicator of kidney disease in cheetahs and whether this assay can be extended to other nondomestic carnivores.

Electrodiagnostic testing is an integral part of the evaluation of the motor unit in many neurologic conditions. Literature about the peripheral nervous system of flying foxes (Pteropus spp) is sparse, and reference range values for motor nerve conduction velocities in vivo have not been established in Chiropterans. The goals of this study were to determine reference range conduction velocities in flying fox for the thoracic and pelvic limb nerve. Eight Pteropus vampyrus, large flying foxes, of varying ages and gender underwent nerve conduction studies of the median nerve and sciatic-tibial nerve. Mean (SD) conduction velocity values were 49.8 (12.7) m/sec for the median nerve and 42.1 (10.2) m/sec for the sciatic-tibial nerve. Median nerve conduction velocities were not significantly faster than sciatic-tibial nerve conduction velocities, although a trend was seen. Differences by sex or age class were not statistically significant. It was also noted that flying foxes rapidly lose body heat under general anesthesia.

Reproductive management of cownose rays (Rhinoptera bonasus) under professional care plays an important role in conservation of the species, but hormone and ultrasonographic analyses of their 12-mo reproductive cycle have not been documented previously. Plasma reproductive hormone concentrations (17B-estradiol, progesterone, testosterone, and androstenedione) were measured monthly via radioimmunoassay for 1 yr in an aquarium-managed population of adult females (n = 15) and males (n = 5). Ultrasounds of the uterus were performed each month at the time of sample collection to identify gestation stage (0–5) based on a previously developed in-house staging system. Stages were correlated to hormone concentrations to track progression through pregnancy. Thirteen females were reproductively active, and each produced one pup in March–June, similar to timing for free-ranging populations. Female estradiol increased steadily throughout gestation from stages 0 to 5, while progesterone, testosterone, and androstenedione were increased only in early gestation (stages 1 and 2). Unlike month of year, gestation stage strongly predicted hormone concentration, but specific values to predict parturition date were not identified. Male testosterone and progesterone were higher in March–June (mating season) than July–January, while estradiol and androstenedione did not exhibit a seasonal pattern. Aquarium-managed cownose rays have similar reproductive patterns to what is reported in wild populations. Ultrasonographic monitoring with serial hormone analysis and accurate mating records will provide the most useful information for managing a reproductive population of cownose rays in an aquarium setting.

The reproductive tracts of three captive male aardvark (Orycteropus afer) were evaluated to characterize the gross and histological anatomy, with correlations to ultrasonographic and computed tomographic imaging. Observations were made from a reproductive tract examined at necropsy, with subsequent evaluation of tissues histologically. Two living specimens were evaluated via ultrasonography with a 10-MHz linear transducer. One living animal was also evaluated via computed tomography. Prominent external scent glands were present at the base of the prepuce. Testicles were present internally at the level of the inguinal canal and capable of sliding into a subcutaneous position. Accessory sex glands consisted of seminal vesicles, prostate gland, and bulbourethral glands, with histological characteristics similar to other species. Ultrasonography was an effective tool for evaluation of internal and external reproductive structures, while the usefulness of computed tomography was limited in the evaluation of pelvic organs due to artifact from nearby bony structures. While a larger study population is desirable, this report provides an important comparative anatomical reference and will help improve the clinical management and care of this species.

Neospora caninum is a coccidian parasite originally reported in dogs and widely prevalent in numerous species of wild and domestic animals and has as definitive hosts some species of canids. The white-lipped peccary (WLP) (Tayassu pecari) is a Tayassuidae mammal, found from Mexico to south of Brazil and north of Argentina. It is a game species with great economic importance in the Peruvian Amazon. Blood samples from 101 WLPs were collected from near or within three different conservation reserves located in the southeastern region of the Peruvian Amazon. For the detection of antibodies against N. caninum, indirect fluorescent antibody tests (IFAT) were performed using collared peccary (Pecari tajacu) and swine (Sus scrofa domesticus) heterologous secondary antibodies. For both IFAT tests, the cutoff was 1:50. Positive samples were titrated by a two fold serial dilution. In addition to IFAT, samples were also analyzed using an immunoblotting test (IB) with anti-swine conjugate. To confirm the viability of the anti-swine conjugate, the results of these samples previously tested by a modified agglutination test (MAT) for Toxoplasma gondii were used as reference. From the total of 101 samples tested, 5 (4.9%) were N. caninum positive by the three tests and an extra sample was positive by both IFATs and negative in the IB. Comparing both IFATs and considering IB as the gold standard, the relative sensitivity of IFATs was 100%, the specificity was 98.9%, the positive predictive value was 83.3%, and the negative predictive value was 100%. The agreement between tests was characterized by a κ value of 0.904 (95% confidence interval, 0.717 to 1.0) and an SE of 0.095. This is the first report of N. caninum antibodies in free-ranging T. pecari, and swine and collared peccary conjugate can be used as a secondary antibody for detection of antibodies in Tayassu species.

Chemical immobilization is a key aspect of wildlife management. To minimize dose-dependent adverse effects, immobilization protocols often include two or more synergistic agents, which allows for reductions in individual drug dosages. Free-ranging bighorn sheep (Ovis canadensis) in Canada (n = 74) were remotely injected with a combination of medetomidine (0.16 ± 0.04 mg/kg) and ketamine (4.0 ± 1.4 mg/kg) (MK), or combination of medetomidine (0.14 ± 0.06 mg/kg), azaperone (0.21 ± 0.11 mg/kg), and alfaxalone (0.45 ± 0.21 mg/kg) (MAA). Once recumbency was achieved, arterial blood samples were collected and immediately analyzed for blood gas and acid-base status. Rectal temperature, heart rate, and respiratory rate were recorded upon recumbency and throughout anesthesia at 5–15 min intervals. At conclusion of the procedures, medetomidine was reversed by intramuscular atipamezole at five times the medetomidine dose. Induction times (mean ± standard deviation) of animals that became immobilized with one dart (8.7 ± 3.2 min, 7.3 ± 3.9 min) and recovery times of all animals (3.4 ± 1.5 min, 3.9 ± 1.6 min) were not significantly different between MK and MAA groups, respectively. Both MK and MAA groups experienced severe hypoxemia (PaO₂ 42 ± 9 mmHg, 40 ± 10 mmHg, respectively). PaCO₂ was significantly higher (P = 0.0248) in the MK group (median 54 mmHg) than the MAA group (median 48 mmHg) with a trend towards lower pH (7.40 vs 7.42, respectively, P = 0.07). Initially, MK animals had higher heart rates than MAA animals (median 49 vs 40 beats/min), which decreased over time. In bighorn sheep, both MK and MAA produced reliable, reversible immobilization with smooth inductions and recoveries. However, less respiratory depression was seen with MAA than MK.

A retrospective study of mortality and neonatal treatment for 975 Attwater's prairie chickens (Tympanuchus cupido attwateri) was conducted from 2009–2015. Gross necropsy, histopathology, and medical records for chicks less than 8 wk of age at the Houston Zoo were reviewed and summarized. The total mortality rate was 36% (n = 352). Yolk sac infection was the most common cause of death (21%; n = 73) followed by maladaptation (19%; n = 68), musculoskeletal abnormalities (19%; n = 66), necrotic enteritis (13%; n = 44), and mucoid enteritis (11%; n = 39). Gavage feeding of a highly digestible formula was associated with a higher proportion of necrotic enteritis and a reduced occurrence of both mucoid enteritis and maladaptation. Meloxicam administration had a significantly reduced incidence of mucoid enteritis. Survival past 10 days of age, prevention of neonatal bacterial infection, and supportive treatment with meloxicam are important factors to increase chick survival and improve captive breeding success for Attwater's prairie chickens. Gavage feeding of a diet low in digestible carbohydrates has the potential for reducing disease due to necrotic enteritis in this species.

Prolonged anesthetic recovery time is a common complication of chelonian inhalant anesthesia and may be exacerbated by right-to-left intracardiac shunting of blood. Epinephrine may decrease intracardiac shunting, which may shorten anesthetic recovery time. The study objective was to assess inhalant anesthetic recovery time following intramuscular epinephrine compared with saline in the loggerhead sea turtle (Caretta caretta). With the use of a prospective, randomized, blinded, crossover design with a 1-wk washout period, six turtles were anesthetized with intravenous (IV) alfaxalone 3 mg/kg, orotracheally intubated, manually ventilated with 3.5% isoflurane inhalant in 100% oxygen for 90 min, and administered either intramuscular (IM) epinephrine 0.1 mg/kg or IM saline 0.1 ml/kg. Isoflurane administration was immediately discontinued and turtles were manually ventilated with room air until extubation. Physiologic variables, sedation scores, end-tidal carbon dioxide (ET_CO2) and isoflurane (ET_ISO) concentrations, time to first movement, and time to extubation were recorded and two-time-point venous blood gas analyses performed. Data were compared with the use of paired t-tests and repeated-measures analyses of variance (ANOVA) (P < 0.05). No morbidity, mortality, or adverse events occurred. ET_CO2 and ET_ISO did not significantly change over time during the isoflurane delivery period (P = 0.990). Mean time to first movement was significantly faster following epinephrine (69.24 ± 12.28 min) compared with saline (87.71 ± 27.05 min, P = 0.047). Although differences were not statistically significant (P = 0.133), time to extubation was at least 30 min faster (31–123 min) in 4/6 turtles following epinephrine compared with saline. Intramuscular epinephrine significantly reduces time to first movement during isoflurane anesthetic recovery in loggerhead sea turtles.

A bipolar, single-lead electrocardiogram (ECG) device is capable of recording ECGs with an integrated smartphone application. To determine the utility of this device, phone-based ECGs (pECG) were compared with standard six-lead ECGs (sECG) in four female Atlantic bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus) at the National Aquarium. Study animals were trained to haul out onto a dry deck in ventral recumbency and allow simultaneous 30-sec ECG acquisition using the two devices. The pECG device was held against the thoracic wall caudal to the left axilla. The sECGs were recorded in the frontal plane. Instantaneous heart rates were obtained from identical QRS complexes on both ECGs. Three boarded cardiologists independently evaluated the rhythm and the polarity of the QRS depolarization for each recording and the results were compared. The mean heart rate was 80 beats/min (range 62–92 beats/min) and 80 beats/min (range 60–92 beats/min) for the pECG and sECGs, respectively. All four dolphins displayed sinus respiratory arrhythmia, and one animal had occasional atrial premature contractions. Rhythm diagnosis and QRS polarity were identical for the pECG and sECG. Dolphin vocalizations created artifacts on the pECG that were not present on the sECG, so pECGs had to be acquired without vocalization. The pECG appears to be an accurate and useful method to monitor the heart rate in Atlantic bottlenose dolphins. This system is inexpensive and portable, making it valuable for health examinations, transport monitoring, and stranding responses.

New alternative laboratory means are needed to improve the options for antemortem diagnosis of avian aspergillosis. In this study, 3-hydroxybutyrate was measured in plasma samples collected from a cohort of African penguins (Spheniscus demersus) maintained under human care. Results were interpreted in combination with those of protein electrophoresis and compared with anti-Aspergillus antibody and galactomannan antigen detection. Overall, 3-hydroxybutyrate levels were found significantly increased in Aspergillus-diseased cases versus the control penguin group (P = 0.002). Mean absolute concentration of β-globulins was increased >20% in samples from infected birds, and α2-globublins were also found to be significantly increased versus clinically normal controls (P < 0.001 and P = 0.001 respectively). Of note, the α2-globulins were also significantly increased versus penguins with inflammatory (non-aspergillosis) diseases (P = 0.001). The specificity of 3-hydroxybutyrate, β-globulins, and α2-globulins for aspergillosis was 78.6%, 79.6%, and 92.2%, respectively. Using these measures in tandem resulted in high specificity (>90%) and negative predictive value (≥80%). In contrast, anti-Aspergillus antibody and galactomannan antigen did not distinguish between infected cases and controls (P > 0.05). This study demonstrates that basic testing in tandem with the new biomarker 3-hydroxybutyrate may provide reliable evidence for the diagnosis of aspergillosis in penguins.

The objective of this study was to determine the major nutrient composition of Indian rhinoceros milk (Rhinoceros unicornis) over the first 13 mo of an 18-mo lactation period and to compare the results to those of previous studies on rhinoceros, African elephant (Loxodonta africana), and horse milk (Equus ferus caballus). The following parameters were measured: dry matter (DM), crude ash (ASH), crude protein (CP), ether extract (EE), nitrogen-free extract (NFE; calculated), lactose, calcium (Ca), phosphorus (P), magnesium (Mg), fatty acids (FAs), and gross energy (GE). DM, ASH, CP, and EE were determined with a proximate analysis, lactose with infrared spectroscopy and an enzymatic method, minerals with an autoanalyzer, FA with gas chromatography, and GE with bomb calorimetry. Milk samples were collected from two Indian rhinoceros cows from Zoo Basel. Rhino A gave birth to her third calf on 10 September 2012; three samples were collected and analyzed (colostrum, milk 1 wk and 2 wk postpartum). Rhino B gave birth to her eighth calf on 05 October 2013; samples were collected and 15 were chosen for the analyses (from colostrum to 13 mo postpartum). The composition of rhino B's colostrum was 13.8% DM (wet-weight basis), 4.8% ASH, 61.8% CP, 0.7% EE, 32.6% NFE, 26.7% lactose, 0.59% Ca, 0.54% P, 0.2% Mg (DM basis), and 20.3 MJ GE/kg DM. Rhino B's sample collected 13 mo postpartum averaged 8.0% DM (wet-weight basis), 3.6% ASH, 16.3% CP, 1.8% EE, 78.3% NFE, 84.7% lactose, 0.54% Ca, 0.48% P, 0.09% Mg (on DM basis), and 17.43 MJ GE/kg DM. The main FAs in rhino B's and rhino A's samples were C10 : 0, C12 : 0, C16 : 0, C18 : 1n9c, and C18 : 2n6c. Milk of the Indian rhinoceros is low in fat and protein but high in lactose, which is comparable to the milk composition of other rhinoceros species and horses, but not African elephants.

Callitrichids are commonly exhibited species in zoological institutions. Retrospective mortality studies allow institutions to evaluate health trends in captive populations and have the potential to advance zoological medicine and husbandry practices. In this single institution, retrospective study, histopathologic records were reviewed for 166 callitrichids comprising six species. For all species and age-groups combined, trauma was the leading cause of death followed by enteritis and stillbirth. In adults and juveniles, the leading cause of death was enteritis, with neonates dying primarily from trauma. Neonatal mortality was high for most species, ranging from 12.5% to 60%, with most neonatal loss in Geoffroy's and pied tamarins. Twin births were commonly associated with neonatal mortality in most species. Intestinal adenocarcinoma was a common finding for adult Geoffroy's tamarin, and hemosiderosis was also identified in this species. Renal disease was a common finding in adult callitrichids and was the second most common cause of death in this age-group. Mortality in the juvenile period (>30 days–1 yr) was uncommon, comprising only 8.4% of the data set. Although capable of surviving into advanced age (>20 yr for one animal), the average age at death for all age classes was 3.84 yr and 9.31 yr for adults. This study contributes to the current knowledge regarding trends in callitrichid health and husbandry and can be used to investigate health trends in this group.

The aims of this study were to determine if a propofol constant rate infusion (CRI) in Speke's gazelle, Gazella spekei, would serve as an effective alternative maintenance anesthetic, result in shorter recovery times, and improve anesthetic recovery quality when compared with isoflurane. Eight adult gazelle were enrolled in this complete crossover study with a minimum 3-wk washout period. All gazelle were induced with 10 mg/kg intravenous propofol and maintained with either propofol CRI (0.4 mg/kg/min) or isoflurane (1–3%) for 45 min. Animals were monitored for anesthetic depth and physiologic variables including heart and respiratory rates, oxygen saturation, end-tidal carbon dioxide, indirect blood pressure, and temperature every 5 min. Blood gas samples were analyzed within the first 10 min following anesthetic induction and within the last 10 min of anesthesia. Recovery times were recorded. Recovery quality was classified by a residual ataxia grading scale. Seven gazelle completed the study by undergoing both anesthetic treatments; one female (12 yr old) developed complications 2 days after isoflurane anesthesia, consisting of seizures, azotemia, leukocytosis, hypocalcemia, and hypomagnesemia but was treated successfully. Propofol anesthesia resulted in lower respiratory rates compared with isoflurane and a decrease in respiratory rate over time. Propofol CRI maintained blood pressure values closer to physiologically normal ranges compared with isoflurane for 45 min of anesthesia. Recovery times were comparable between propofol and isoflurane treatments. While individuals receiving propofol had higher residual ataxia scores compared with individuals receiving isoflurane, differences were not clinically important. This study demonstrated that propofol CRI (0.4 mg/kg/min) is an effective maintenance anesthetic agent in healthy adult Speke's gazelle for noninvasive procedures with endotracheal intubation and intermittent positive pressure ventilation.

In a practical feeding trial at Ouwehand Zoo, plasma concentrations of vitamin A₁, calcidiol (D₃), α-tocopherol (E), and B₁ in 17 Humboldt penguins (Spheniscus humboldti) were measured before and after supplementation to gain insight into the effect of supplementing these vitamins in animals being fed thawed frozen-fish diets. None of the penguins received vitamin supplements for at least 6 mo before the supplementation trial, which was conducted prior to their normal nesting and molting period. During the trial period, eight penguins received daily vitamin A₁, D₃, tocopheryl acetate, and B₁ supplementation placed in their fish immediately prior to feeding and nine control penguins received no supplementation. Concentrations of vitamins A₁, D₃, α-tocopherol, and B₁ were also measured in the thawed ready-to-feed fish. Concentrations of vitamins B₁ and α-tocopherol were below the Association of Zoos and Aquariums (AZA) recommendations for penguin diets, while concentrations of vitamins A₁ and D₃ were far above AZA recommendations. At the start of the study and after 70 days of supplementation, plasma concentrations were determined for these vitamins. Vitamin B₁ concentrations in plasma increased significantly (P < 0.05) between Day 0 (mean 39.9 μg/L) and day 70 (mean 160.5 μg/L) in the supplemented group. Plasma vitamin D₃ and α-tocopherol did not show a significant change. Vitamin A₁ levels in the supplemented group decreased significantly from 1.65 mg/L on day 0 to 1.4 mg/L on day 70. In the control group no significant changes were observed. The results of the study support the necessity of supplementing vitamin B₁ in penguins fed thawed frozen fish. Depletion of vitamin A and E concentrations in frozen food fish over time support recommendations to regularly measure vitamin concentrations in different batches of frozen fish.

Across China and Southeast Asia, over 17,000 bears are currently farmed for bile, predominantly for traditional Chinese medicines. Bears on farms in China are cage confined and undergo repeated daily bile extraction facilitated by surgically implanted catheters or gallbladder fistulas. Numerous health problems have been reported in bile-farmed bears including peritonitis, abdominal hernias, and extraction site abscessation. Between 2009 and 2014, five Asiatic black bears (Ursus thibetanus) and one Asiatic black/Eurasian brown bear (Ursus arctos arctos) hybrid, rescued from the bear bile industry in China, died from ruptured and/or dissecting aortic aneurysm. Medical records were reviewed and two bears exhibited no clinical signs prior to death. In four bears, clinical findings varied and included increased stereotypic behavior prior to death, epistaxis, retinal lesions, dysphagia, weight loss, and acute onset of hyporexia. On postmortem examination, hemopericardium with dissection and/or rupture of the ascending aorta and left ventricular wall hypertrophy were present in all cases. No evidence of infectious disease, connective tissue disorders, or congenital cardiac disease was identified. Based on these observations screening thoracic radiography was performed on all bears at the rescue center and aortic dilation was identified in 73 of 134 (54.5%) bile-extracted bears. To the authors' knowledge, aortic aneurysm, rupture, and/or dissection have not been previously reported in any bear species and the high prevalence in this population of bears suggests an association with bile-farming practices. Future studies are needed to investigate the etiopathogenesis of this condition to aid in early diagnosis and improved management of bears being rescued from bile farms across Asia.

Tuberculosis (TB) was diagnosed in four Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) in a zoo in the United States. The first case was detected by isolation of Mycobacterium tuberculosis during routine trunk wash (TW) culture testing of a herd of eight elephants. Retrospective antibody analyses revealed seroconversion 1 yr before diagnosis. Serological testing of the whole elephant herd identified two additional suspect bulls with detectable antibody, but which remained culture-negative and had no clinical signs of disease. In the following months, M. tuberculosis, identical to the isolate from the index case, was isolated from TW samples of these two elephants. A fourth elephant seroconverted nearly 4 yr after the first TB case was detected, and M. tuberculosis was isolated from a TW sample collected 1 mo later. All four infected elephants received anti-TB therapy. Two treated elephants were eventually euthanized for reasons unrelated to M. tuberculosis and found to be culture-negative on necropsy, although one of them had PCR-positive lung lesions. One infected animal had to be euthanized due to development of a drug-resistant strain of M. tuberculosis; this animal did not undergo postmortem examination due to risk of staff exposure. The fourth animal is currently on treatment. Serial serological and culture results of the other four herd mates have remained negative.

Carp edema virus (CEV) is the causative agent of carp edema virus disease (CEVD), also referred to as koi sleepy disease, which is an emerging disease of global concern that may cause high rates of morbidity and mortality in common carp and ornamental koi (Cyprinus carpio). This article reports the third confirmed outbreak of CEVD in California. In June 2015, three koi presented with clinical signs of cutaneous lesions, severe lethargy, and signs of hypoxia. All fish tested positive for CEV by polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Euthanasia and complete necropsy were performed on two fish. The most significant necropsy findings included necrotizing branchitis with marked interstitial edema, multifocal cutaneous ulcerations, and severe cutaneous edema. Treatment of the pond with 0.3–0.5% salt was recommended to the owner. Approximately 7 wk later, a recheck visit was made to the pond. No mortalities had been noted since the initiation of the salt treatment. Physical examination revealed a vast improvement but not complete elimination of the clinical signs of hypoxia and intermittent lethargy in the affected fish. Gill biopsy samples from the two most affected fish were tested and remained PCR positive for CEV. Subsequent recheck visits over 11 mo postdiagnosis and initiation of treatment showed continued improvement in most fish. Gill samples from all fish in the pond (n = 9) were repeatedly tested by quantitative PCR for CEV, and all samples were negative. This case series further confirms the global spread of CEV and the need for practitioners to be vigilant for outbreaks of this disease. If CEVD is suspected, treatment with 0.3–0.5% salt can be recommended to potentially mitigate the effects of this disease. However, fish may remain potential carriers of this pathogen, and strict biosecurity measures should continue to be enforced for any pond that has had a confirmed CEV outbreak.

The lack of sensitive and specific markers of inflammation poses a diagnostic challenge in sick or injured reptile patients. The objective of this study was to investigate the diagnostic performance of blood analytes associated with inflammation in healthy (n = 24) and sick (n = 38) gopher tortoises (Gopherus polyphemus). Receiver operating characteristic analysis identified the following as the best-performing diagnostic tests: erythrocyte sedimentation rate (area under the curve [AUC] = 0.812; 95% confidence interval [CI] = 0.693, 0.900), absolute mature heterophils (AUC = 0.771; 95% CI = 0.646, 0.869), total leukocytes (AUC = 0.767; 95% CI = 0.642, 0.866), lactate (AUC = 0.766; 95% CI = 0.641, 0.864), and absolute immature heterophils (AUC = 0.755; 95% CI = 0.628, 0.856). These results support the clinical application of additional tools for the diagnosis and monitoring of inflammatory disease in gopher tortoises. Clinicians may consider adding erythrocyte sedimentation rate and lactate to the minimum database for this species.

Iron overload has been described in various wild species. The majority of cases involve captive animals, often associated with increased dietary iron uptake. Here a case of idiopathic iron overload in a female adult harbor seal under human care is presented. The animal displayed a progressive anorexia, apathy, and increased serum iron levels. Radiographs showed radiopaque foreign bodies in the stomach. The seal died during an elective laparotomy. Twenty-five coins and two metal rings were removed from the stomach. Histopathologic examination revealed iron storage without cellular damage in liver, spleen, kidney, and pulmonary and mesenteric lymph nodes. Atomic absorption spectrophotometry analysis for iron revealed values thirty times above the reference ranges in spleen and liver; however, the coins only contain minor levels (parts per million) of iron. The etiology of the iron overload in this animal remains unclear. A multifactorial process cannot be excluded.

Malignant catarrhal fever (MCF) can affect both domestic and wild artiodactyls. In a zoological setting, in which subclinical carriers and susceptible species are often housed in close proximity, the disease can prove fatal. This report describes a case of goat-associated MCF in a captive moose (Alces alces). The diagnosis was confirmed by histopathology, which showed lymphocytic vasculitis in the brain and panuveitis, and by detection of caprine herpesvirus 2 DNA in tissues. Identical viral DNA sequences amplified from the clinically affected moose and from domestic, petting goats (Capra aegagrus hircus) housed in the zoo suggest that the goats were the source for the virus transmutation. This is the first report, to our knowledge, of confirmed goat-associated MCF in any moose in North America and of the surveillance measures and procedures put in place to prevent additional spread of the disease.

Two male Asian elephants (bulls 1 and 2) in musth were subcutaneously injected with a long-acting gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) antagonist, degarelix acetate (240 μg/kg; total dose of 960 mg). Musth behavior (MB) and temporal gland secretions (TGS) were monitored and serum testosterone concentrations were determined. In bull 1, MB and TGS ceased on day 1 and reappeared 5.5 mo after the treatment (day 0). During the subsequent musth cycle, MB and TGS ceased on day 1 and did not appear for 4 mo. In bull 2, MB and TGS ceased at day 7 after the treatment. Musth behavior and TGS recurred on Day 11 and continued for 1 wk, then disappeared for 8 mo. Serum testosterone concentrations decreased (P < 0.05) in all occasions from day 0 (29.8 ± 15.8 ng/ml; mean ± SEM) to day 1 (2.2 ± 1.1 ng/ml), suggesting a sudden drop in circulating testosterone in musth elephants after the GnRH-antagonist treatment.

Pythium insidiosum, an aquatic oomycete, causes chronic lesions in the skin and digestive tract of multiple species. A captive-bred Bactrian camel (Camelus bactrianus) showed clinical signs of lethargy and weight loss in a clinical course of 30 days, with no response to treatment. At necropsy, the abdominal cavity had approximately 32 L of a yellow, turbid fluid with fibrin. The third compartment of the stomach (C-3) showed a focal area of rupture covered with fibrin. Close to this area, the C-3 wall was thickened and firm, demonstrating irregular, yellow, and friable areas on cut surface (kunkers). Microscopically, these corresponded to necrosis, characterized by a central amorphous eosinophilic material, surrounded by a pyogranulomatous inflammatory infiltrate and fibrosis. Negatively stained hyphae were observed at the periphery of the necrotic areas, which showed marked immunostaining for P. insidiosum. Pythiosis in camelids may involve the stomach, resulting in peritonitis and death.

Two related female snow leopards (Panthera uncia) were diagnosed with osteochondritis dissecans of the lateral femoral condyle via radiographs and computed tomography. Lesions were either bilateral (Patient 1) or unilateral (Patient 2). Surgical treatment was performed using an osteochondral autograft transfer system following cartilage flap removal. After a 6-wk recovery period, both animals had a markedly improved gait with mild pelvic limb stiffness. Patient 1 developed intermittent lameness 9 mo postsurgery and Patient 2 had mild lameness 3 yr postsurgery. Because of recurrent lameness, both animals were treated with platelet-rich plasma intra-articular injections and oral gabapentin (Patient 1) or oral meloxicam (Patient 2). Full incorporation of autografts was confirmed with computed tomography (both patients) and arthroscopy (Patient 1 only). Osteochondritis dissecans has been previously reported in snow leopards and these cases represent the first reported use of osteochondral autograft repair and platelet-rich plasma to treat the condition.

This study aimed to evaluate the bacterial flora in the conjunctival fornix of clinically normal Persian squirrels (Sciurus anomalus). Forty healthy Persian squirrels of equal gender distribution with similar ages (approximately 2 yr) were used for this study. A total of 80 conjunctival swabs were taken from both the right and left eyes of each squirrel for aerobic and anaerobic bacterial identification. A slit-lamp examination was conducted and no external ocular disease was identified. From 80 normal eyes, Staphylococcus spp. comprised the most frequently isolated organism (83%), while Corynebacterium spp. were the second most frequently isolated bacteria (56%), followed by Streptococcus spp. (53%), Chlamydia spp. (33%). Mycoplasma spp. (30%), Pseudomonas spp. (23%), Escherichia coli spp. (12.5%), Enterococcus spp. (7%), and Micrococcus spp. (4%) were also isolated. The most frequently isolated bacteria from the conjunctival fornix of healthy Persian squirrels were Staphylococcus spp. followed by Corynebacterium spp.

Pregnancy-associated glycoproteins (PAGs) are expressed by the ruminal placenta, making their detection in blood an accurate indicator of pregnancy. This study aimed to evaluate two commercially available PAG enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISAs) in muskoxen (Ovibos moschatus). The two tests are based on the same principles; however, one is evaluated photometrically and the other visually. Sixteen samples covering all trimesters of pregnancy, and 16 nonpregnant samples were included to evaluate test performance. Both tests reliably detected pregnancy. The photometric ELISA showed a sensitivity and specificity of 94% and 100%, respectively. Although the visual ELISA depends on somewhat subjective interpretations, it came up with a sensitivity of 81% and a specificity of 100%, and might thus provide a useful in-house tool when limited laboratory equipment is available. Analysis of additional samples showed consistent results during pregnancy and circulating PAGs for at least 18 days postpartum.

Coccidial disease is significant in tortoises; Testudines intranuclear coccidiosis (TINC), caused by an unnamed coccidia, causes high mortality in diverse tortoise species. There is a lack of information on anticoccidial drugs in tortoises. The drug ponazuril has demonstrated efficacy in treating mammals infected with similar coccidial disease. Previous empirical use of ponazuril in TINC cases suggests that it may be an effective treatment. In this study, 20 mg/kg of ponazuril was orally administered to tortoises with the goal of achieving blood concentrations known to be effective for anticoccidial therapy in mammals. Ponazuril was measured in tortoise plasma, and noncompartmental analyses of pharmacokinetic parameters were attempted. Ponazuril in these tortoises did not achieve the desired concentrations known to be effective for anticoccidial treatment in mammals. Tortoises showed prolonged oral absorption, and despite sampling for 168 hr (1 wk), a terminal elimination rate constant and half-life were not able to be determined. Additional studies are needed to fully characterize ponazuril pharmacokinetics in red-footed tortoises. The optimal dose for treating TINC remains to be determined.

A juvenile female California sea lion (Zalophus californianus) presented with a firm subcutaneous mass in the right caudoventral pelvic region, measuring approximately 15 × 15 cm, and edema in the right hind flipper. The initial diagnostic workup included an ultrasound, blood analysis, and fine-needle aspirate of the mass under manual restraint. While the blood analysis was within normal limits, the ultrasound revealed a large discrete hyperechoic homogeneous mass with anastomosing hypoechoic fluid pockets that, when aspirated, was suggestive of a reactive lymph node. Short-term empiric antibiotic therapy prescribed to address possible lymphadenitis yielded no response, and edema of the right hind flipper and perianal region worsened. The sea lion was anesthetized to facilitate a more thorough exam, repeat blood analysis, obtain survey radiographs, evaluate with ultrasound, and perform biopsy of mass. The thoracic radiographs were normal; however, the large radiopaque mass was observed cranial to the pelvis on lateral abdominal view and appeared solitary on ultrasound. An exploratory surgery was performed to completely excise the mass. On histopathologic review, the mass demonstrated diffuse fibrous hyperplasia of lobular ducts of the mammary gland and mild mastitis, characterizing it as a mammary fibroadenoma. The surgical wound healed within 6 wk, and there was no recurrence of mammary hyperplasia.

Deficiency of vitamin D can contribute to health complications that present as metabolic bone disease. The aim of this small-scale study was to determine if a high UVb irradiance would affect an increase in plasma vitamin D₃ concentrations in Burmese pythons (Python bivittatus). There have been inconsistent results throughout the literature concerning the usefulness of UVb radiation regarding vitamin D₃ synthesis. Blood samples of four healthy Burmese pythons were taken at day 0 and day 310. After the first blood sample was taken, an Arcadia Superzoo T5 ASZ01 lamp was fitted in the enclosure. For 310 days, the pythons were exposed to UVb radiation. Blood plasma vitamin D₃ concentrations were considerably higher after UVb exposure. This study indicates that a period of 10 mo of UVb exposure can result in an increased vitamin D₃ status in Burmese pythons. Answering whether these elevated levels have health benefits for Burmese pythons (and possibly other snake species) requires further studies.

Wildlife health assessments at remote sites may lead to delayed testing of whole blood for complete blood counts (CBC) resulting in artifacts affecting clinical interpretation. Streck Cell Preservative (SCP) is a proprietary liquid stabilization reagent designed to preserve human leukocytes and may be applicable to wildlife health assessments when immediate processing of blood is not possible. The purpose of this study was to determine if SCP adequately preserved EDTA-anticoagulated whole blood from koalas (Phascolarctos cinereus) for up to 14 days. Blood from 12 captive adult koalas was collected and combined with SCP in a 1 : 1 ratio and refrigerated. Paired samples of SCP treated and untreated blood had CBCs performed at five time-points over 14 days. Streck Cell Preservative extended koala EDTA-anticoagulated whole blood viability to 14 days by decreasing cellular lysis. Species- and method-specific reference intervals for SCP should be generated to avoid clinical misinterpretation, especially when evaluating anemia.

Reports of neoplastic diseases in the Siberian chipmunk (Eutamias sibiricus) are limited. The authors describe herein two necropsy cases of Siberian chipmunks with squamous cell carcinoma; both of which showed self-biting behaviors on presentation to the clinician. In both cases, the neoplasms comprised trabeculae and islands of polyhedral cells, supported by moderate amounts of fibrous stroma. Anisocytosis and anisokaryosis were moderate to prominent. Neoplastic cells were occasionally keratinized, with a keratin pearl formation. In one case, valvular endocardiosis of the left and right atrioventricular valves with secondary pulmonary and hepatic lesions was incidentally diagnosed. This report provides the first documentation of squamous cell carcinoma and endocardiosis in the Siberian chipmunk.

A free-ranging juvenile California sea lion (Zalophus californianus) stranded on the coast of Vancouver, British Columbia, with signs of lethargy and emaciation in April 2016. An asymmetrical skull with a prominent superficial cervical lymph node was found on initial assessment. Fine-needle aspirates and biopsies of the lymph node were consistent with neoplasia and the animal was humanely euthanized and presented for necropsy. A metastatic parotid gland adenocarcinoma was diagnosed with regional lymph node and pulmonary metastases. Local invasion of contiguous skeletal muscle, bone, ear, and tonsils was extensive and likely accounted for the unilateral craniofacial deformity. Neoplasia of nonurogenital origin in juvenile California sea lions are reported infrequently. This is the first case of a parotid carcinoma in a California sea lion.

A 47-yr-old multiparous female bonobo (Pan paniscus) tested positive for pregnancy on a routine urine test. Because this geriatric animal was considered postreproductive, oral contraception had been discontinued. Sequential transabdominal ultrasound evaluations were performed under voluntary behavior and revealed that the uterus contained a mass of heterogenous tissue which was rapidly increasing in size. Due to a lack of normal fetal development and the ultrasonographic appearance of the uterine tissue, a molar pregnancy was suspected. Ovariohysterectomy was performed, and a complete hydatidiform mole was confirmed through human chorionic gonadotropin levels as well as gross and histological examination of the uterus. To the authors' knowledge, this is the first time a complete molar pregnancy has been reported antemortem in a nonhuman great ape, although a single case of partial hydatidiform mole was previously documented in a chimpanzee on postmortem examination. This case describes the successful medical and surgical management of complete molar pregnancy in a bonobo and provides support for extending the age range of birth control recommendations in geriatric captive great apes that exhibit active breeding behavior.