Traditionally, animal preventive medicine programs have been based on reducing health risks to individuals or groups of animals within a zoo or aquarium collection with an emphasis on transmissible pathogens of concern. An alternative risk analysis method of using animal health risks that impact a zoo or aquarium business to drive animal well-being program strategy is suggested. Business risk lenses of value to the individual organization are determined and weighted prior to use for risk analysis. In this example, the lenses used were 1) partial or complete closure of a park, resort, or attraction; 2) damage to brand integrity; 3) disruption to population management; 4) impact on individual animal or population health (the traditional basis of preventive medicine programs); and 5) other organizational concerns. Using these five business risks lenses demonstrates a holistic view of the zoo or aquarium business that engages all parts of the organization in understanding and preventing animal health concerns, thus giving animals the best opportunity to thrive. This approach increases risk tolerance in veterinarians, as they are no longer held solely accountable for morbidity and mortality: the responsibility for protecting the health of the animals and the business is more evenly distributed across the organization. With veterinarians demonstrating more tolerance and flexibility, their value increases and they are engaged for greater influence across the organization.

General anesthesia is a crucial tool in health care and clinical practice involving wildlife, including penguins. A balanced general anesthetic technique that combines multiple drugs is beneficial for achieving sufficient anesthesia while minimizing the side effects of individual agents. However, only a few studies have explored the use of multimodal anesthesia in penguins. This study examined the effects of midazolam (benzodiazepine) and butorphanol (mixed j-opioid agonist and weak l-opioid antagonist) as preanesthetic agents in gentoo penguins (Pygoscelis papua). Midazolam and butorphanol were administered intramuscularly at 0.25 mg/kg each, followed by anesthesia induction and maintenance with alfaxalone administered intravenously. Sedation level, required alfaxalone dose, recovery time, heart rate, and noninvasive blood pressure were evaluated during anesthesia. Sedation intensity increased over time after premedication. When midazolam and butorphanol were used as preanesthetics, the required alfaxalone dose for induction was 4.8 ± 0.8 mg/kg, and the mean infusion rate of alfaxalone required to maintain anesthesia was 0.12 ± 0.05 mg/kg per minute. Recovery from anesthesia took 3 (1–7) (median [interquartile range]) min for extubation and 20 ± 12 (mean ± SD) min for complete recovery. Heart rates were maintained within the normal physiological range, and noninvasive blood pressure remained stable. Compared with previous investigations on anesthesia induction and maintenance using alfaxalone alone, the intramuscular administration of 0.25 mg/kg midazolam and 0.25 mg/kg butorphanol reduced the alfaxalone dose requirement for anesthesia induction and maintenance, thereby shortening recovery times.

Chemical restraint, whether remote via dart or via hand injection is essential for many veterinary procedures in captive and wild Panthera spp. but carries risk both to the animal and staff involved. Anecdotal patient safety concerns have been raised for the use of Tiletamine-Zolazepam (TZ), particularly in tigers, that have since been disputed. This investigation assesses the incidence of multiple reported anesthetic complications, including ataxia, respiratory depression/apnea, seizures, bradycardia and retching/vomiting, in captive Panthera spp. immobilized with Ketamine-Medetomidine or TZ-Medetomidine. Three hundred and two anesthetic records were provided by Dr. John Lewis with 44% reporting at least one complication (n = 133). Seventeen sedations using ketamine-medetomidine (9.7%) were reported to provide inadequate depth or require top-up ketamine compared to 12.5% (n = 16) in the TZ-medetomidine group. Species, age, reason for immobilization and requirement for maintenance with isoflurane were identified as significant confounding variables within these data. There was no significant difference in the risk of respiratory depression and seizures in tigers immobilized with ketamine-medetomidine or TZ-medetomidine. However, the TZ group were more likely to be ataxic on recovery. There was no significant difference in risk when immobilizing lions with either protocol. Leopards experienced significantly more complications with TZ-medetomidine than ketamine-medetomidine or TZ as a sole agent, suggesting that this is linked to an unknown confounding variable and not the drugs used. In conclusion, this study identified no justification for the contraindication for TZ in the chemical restraint of Panthera spp. including P. tigris.

Historically, free-ranging musk oxen (Ovibos moschatus) were anesthetized with potent opioids such as etorphine, which are often associated with marked respiratory depression. The goal of this study was to investigate alternatives to the etorphine–xylazine combination (EtXy) traditionally used in this species. First, the potential benefit of postinduction butorphanol administrations to musk oxen anesthetized with EtXy was assessed. Then, the use of butorphanol–azaperone–medetomidine (BAM-II) as an alternative to the use of potent opioids for the immobilization of free-ranging musk oxen was evaluated. Eighty-nine musk oxen were ground darted with either a combination of EtXy (n = 52) or BAM-II (n = 37), and 10 animals from the EtXy group received an IM injection of butorphanol at 1 mg/mg of etorphine (EtXyB). Intranasal oxygen (1 L/100 kg per minute) was administered to all animals. Respiratory rate, heart rate, peripheral capillary oxygen saturation (SpO₂), end-tidal carbon dioxide (EtCO₂), and rectal temperature were compared between groups. Postinduction butorphanol injection was associated with a decrease in heart rate (P = 0.001) and increases in respiratory rate (P < 0.001), rectal temperature (P < 0.001) and SpO₂ (P < 0.001), but did not affect EtCO₂ (P = 0.069). Musk oxen anesthetized with BAM-II had a significantly lower EtCO₂ (P = 0.009) and heart rate (P = 0.009) compared with musk oxen anesthetized with EtXy or EtXyB, and a higher SpO₂ compared with animals anesthetized with EtXy (P < 0.001). There was no significant difference between induction (P = 0.98) or recovery (P = 0.74) time for the three protocols used. This study provides evidence that postinduction butorphanol administration added to the etorphine–xylazine protocol can decrease respiratory depression. Additionally, BAM-II can be used as an affective drug combination to immobilize musk oxen in their natural environment.

The golden-mantled howler monkey (Alouatta palliata palliata) represents an excellent sentinel species for use in One Health modeling because of its extensive natural range, regular contact with humans and domestic animals, and susceptibility to zoonotic diseases. The purpose of this research is to establish baseline health assessments for free ranging golden-mantled howler monkeys in Marino Las Baulas National Park, Costa Rica. In April 2013, seven free ranging golden-mantled howler monkeys were anesthetized for physical examinations and biological sample collection, including blood for hematology and blood gas analysis. All seven howler monkeys studied appeared in good overall health. On physical exams, 4/7 (57%) had some level of dental disease, most notably crown fractures. Fecal samples for endoparasite evaluation were collected from the seven anesthetized animals as well as an additional three animals that were anesthetized but remained in the trees out of reach for full physical exams. Feces were collected from the rectum or collected from the ground immediately after defecation. Fecal analysis showed 9/10 (90%) had one or more species of intestinal parasites, and one animal tested positive for Giardia spp. Hematologic values showed a mild monocytosis and eosinophilia compared to other Alouatta spp. Trypanosoma spp. were present in the blood smear of one animal. Additional vector-borne disease testing found one individual PCR positive to Plasmodium spp., and one individual PCR positive to Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus. Antibodies for West Nile virus were found in 5/7 (71%) of the animals; however, PCR testing for West Nile virus and dengue virus was negative for all samples. This represents the first published health assessments for howler monkeys in this region.

The aim of this study was to conduct Doppler echocardiography on healthy free-ranging anteaters (Myrmecophaga tridactyla) and to evaluate the relationship between echocardiographic parameters of diagnostic importance and animal body weight (BW). This work utilized 8 anesthetized adult animals and 4 manually restrained pups. The echocardiographic examinations were performed with the animal in left lateral recumbency. The echocardiographic scans were directed toward the parasternal window. Four cuts of the cardiac silhouette were conducted, two longitudinal and two transverse, to evaluate the systolic and diastolic cardiac parameters. This study recorded the following parameters: interventricular septum (IVS), left ventricular internal diameter (LVID), left ventricular posterior wall (LVPW), ejection fraction (EF), shortening fraction (SF), aortic valve diameter (AOD), and left atrial diameter (LAD). The BW data (kg) of each giant anteater were paired with their respective echocardiographic data. These data were analyzed using correlation and linear regression modeling to assess the extent of the associations between the variables and their reliability. The same associations were analyzed with canine data to compare and determine the possibility of extrapolating the findings between dogs and anteaters. The echocardiographic parameters obtained using M-mode ultrasound from the short-axis transverse sections were adjusted to the left parasternal window because of the difficulty in analyzing them in the right parasternal window. The correlations between the echocardiographic parameters and the BW were found to be reliable, indicating that they could potentially be used as a simulation model for anteaters when an adequate number of animals are included in the analysis. The verification of the echocardiographic values obtained in anteaters utilizing reference intervals for dogs demonstrated acceptable hit rates, although the statistical results were not satisfactory.

Acute phase proteins (APPs) are commonly used in domestic equine practice, where they rise rapidly in response to inflammation and decrease soon after resolution. This response provides useful information to identify, monitor, and prognosticate a variety of inflammatory conditions. Asian wild horses (Equus ferus przewalskii) are an endangered relative of the domestic horse, and APP reference intervals (RI) and clinical utility in this species are not well documented. This study used serum samples from clinically healthy Asian wild horses under managed care to establish RI for serum amyloid A (SAA, n = 21) using an equine SAA assay and haptoglobin (HP, n = 23) using a proprietary assay. The utility of SAA and HP in identifying inflammation in clinically abnormal horses was assessed, and storage stability of these analytes under refrigerated conditions was determined. The RIs established in this study were 0.3–6.8 mg/L for SAA and 0–3.25 g/L for HP. Six clinically abnormal cases were retrospectively assessed using the RI established in this study. One case of pituitary neoplasia showed elevated SAA levels, one case of maxillary lip phaeohyphomycosis and concurrent endometritis showed elevations in SAA and HP, and one case of chronic laminitis had elevated SAA. Storage stability of SAA and HP were assessed at 4°C over 7 d. SAA significantly decreased between Time 0 h and Time 72 h, but increased again at 7 d with no significant difference between Time 0 h and Time 7 d. Because of the initial decrease in SAA concentration over the first 72 h, it is recommended that SAA is analyzed within 48 h if freezing or immediate analysis is not possible. There was no significant difference between HP between Time 0 h and Time 7 d, suggesting stability of this analyte over this period if freezing or immediate analysis is not possible.

Free-ranging red-tailed hawks (Buteo jamaicensis) commonly present to wildlife facilities and veterinary clinics for injury or illness, and bloodwork is often an essential tool in their diagnostic workup. However, the type of anticoagulant used and the sample storage time prior to processing may potentially impact hematological values. This study evaluated differences between EDTA and lithium heparin (HEP) preserved blood samples in packed cell volume (PCV), total solids (TS), estimated WBC counts by smear, and WBC differential counts. Additionally, differences in estimated WBC counts and WBC differential counts between anticoagulant-free (AF) and anticoagulant preserved blood smears were evaluated. Values were compared at time of blood collection and again after refrigeration for two, six, and 24 hours. Packed cell volume and TS were not significantly different between type of anticoagulant or time stored. Statistically significant differences in estimated WBC counts between AF samples and ETDA samples were found at all time points after time of collection (p = 0.025, 0.021, 0.010 for t = 2, 6, 24, respectively), while no differences were noted between AF samples and HEP samples. White blood cell differential count was impacted with variable significance by both time and anticoagulant. Clinically, HEP should be considered the anticoagulant of choice in this species and consideration should be taken to evaluate samples as close to collection time as possible.

The opossum has been recognized as an intermediate host for many parasites including Besnoitia spp., which is a protozoan that infects various mammals, including many wildlife species. A limited number of reports using serology, histopathology, and molecular assays have documented the presence of B. darlingi in opossums. In the present study, samples from three opossum species, including the Virginia opossum (Didelphis virginiana, n = 33) from urban/suburban areas of Florida, USA admitted to rehabilitation centers, and free ranging white-eared and black-eared opossum from two urban areas of Brazil (D. albiventris, n = 33; D. aurita, n = 34, respectively), were examined for antibody reactivity to Besnoitia spp. using indirect immunofluorescence (IFAT) and Western blot (WB) assays adapted for the detection of opossum antibodies. While 3/33 (9.1%) samples from Virginia opossum showed positive reactivity by both methods, none of the samples from the opossum from Brazil showed such reactivity. The three Besnoitia-seropositive samples were obtained from Virginia opossums clinically suspected to have besnoitiosis based on the appearance of diffuse skin lesions. These data support the further evaluation of serological testing in future studies of besnoitiosis in the opossum as well as a hypothesis of limited infection in the opossum of South Florida, USA, and southern and southeastern Brazil. Overall, the preliminary data has management implications for rehabilitation centers that commonly treat this species and research implications in the application of these assays in wildlife species.

The Galápagos blue-footed booby (Sula nebouxii excisa) is a sulid species endemic to the Galápagos archipelago. Here we present physical examination, breeding status, hematology, and blood chemistry results from 60 Galápagos blue-footed boobies that were captured by hand from their nesting site on North Seymour Island in June 2017 and July 2022. A portable blood analyzer (iSTAT) was used to obtain values in the field for hematocrit, hemoglobin, sodium, potassium, chloride, ionized calcium, total CO₂, glucose, blood urea nitrogen, creatinine, and anion gap for each bird. Blood lactate, total solids, packed cell volume, and blood smears were also assessed. A white blood cell differential was performed in 2017. The breeding status of each bird and the number of chicks in the nests were also recorded. Total CO₂, blood urea nitrogen, ionized calcium, potassium, anion gap, hematocrit, and hemoglobin were all higher in 2022 than in 2017. There were also more nests with chicks in 2022 than in 2017. Lactate, ionized calcium, hematocrit, and hemoglobin were all higher in females than in males, and blood urea nitrogen was higher in males than in females. These results provide a reference to the baseline health parameters in a free-living population of Galápagos blue-footed boobies that can be used to monitor the health status of this species.

Spheniscid alphaherpesvirus-1 (SpAHV-1) is associated with respiratory disease in juvenile African penguins (Spheniscus demersus). In 2020, this virus was detected in adult birds with clinical signs of respiratory disease in a previously asymptomatic colony of 21 birds following a recommended introduction of three new birds, including two with a history of herpesvirus as juveniles. Mild to moderate respiratory signs were noted in 33% (8/24) of the colony. SpAHV-1 DNA was detected in respiratory secreta by herpesvirus consensus PCR in three birds, although as the definitive source of the presentation, it could not be confirmed. Surveillance for SpAHV-1 was performed in all colony birds seven and 19 mo following resolution of respiratory disease signs. SpAHV-1 was detected via consensus herpesvirus PCR and sequencing in two apparently healthy individuals, including one which had clinical signs of respiratory disease and tested positive for SpAHV-1 during the original outbreak. Due to limited knowledge about this pathogen, a retrospective assessment regarding SpAHV-1 and respiratory disease was performed by analyzing survey data collected from 41 institutions holding African penguins in the Species Survival Plan^© (SSP) North American population from 2011–2021. From the 41 institutions that participated, 782 birds were evaluated and assessed, representing 70% of the total available population (n = 1,116). The majority (80%; 33/41) of participating institutions' veterinarians reported no knowledge of SpAHV-1 prior to this survey. Respiratory disease (e.g., sneezing, coughing, nasal discharge, oropharyngeal plaques, pulmonary auscultation changes) was reported in 21.2% of the surveyed cohort. Most clinical signs were resolved within 3–30 dy, with an average duration of illness of 13 dy. The odds of respiratory disease were significantly higher in males (p < 0.0001) and in non-transferred penguins as compared to those penguins transferred between institutions (p = 0.005). Only 5.6% of penguins (44/782) were tested for herpesviruses by PCR during the study period and of these birds, 18% (8/44) were positive for SpAHV-1. SpAHV-1 represents an important differential for respiratory disease in African penguins, but additional epidemiologic research is needed to determine the full impact of this pathogen.

African black-footed penguins (Spheniscus demersus) are one of the most common penguin species exhibited in zoos and aquariums. Ophthalmic literature published in this species is limited to intraocular pressure (IOP) and corneal thickness. The objective of this research was to evaluate IOP (rebound tonometry; dog setting), tear production, corneal fluorescein staining, and ocular lesions from 48 eyes of 24 penguins (aged 4.29–29.58 yr) at Ripley's Aquarium of the Smokies. Statistical analysis revealed that tear production (12.68 ± 4.59 mm/min [mean ± SD], with a modified half strip in 25 eyes) was not affected by sex or weight or between left and right eyes. Schirmer tear measurements were observed to decrease with age (P = 0.008). IOP (29.81 ± 4.88 mm Hg [mean ± SD]) was not affected by sex, weight, or age or between left and right eyes. Faint corneal fluorescein uptake was observed in four eyes, indicating stippled-to-patchy erosions on the corneal epithelium. Cataracts were the most common ocular lesion (50%; 12/24 penguins) and mostly incipient anterior subcapsular. Increased age (P = 0.024) was determined to be a risk factor for cataracts. Other ocular lesions observed in this group were corneal fibrosis, diffuse chemosis, and perilimbal corneal conjunctivalization. This study contributes to species-specific ocular reference intervals for African black-footed penguins and characterizes their most common ocular lesions.

The aim of this study was to descriptively characterize the ophthalmic findings identified in 43 adult sloth bears (Melursus ursinus) rescued from the dancing bear trade in India and examined at two sloth bear rehabilitation centers in Agra and Bannerghatta nr. Bangalore. Animals were selected where ocular disease was suspected except for two bears which were examined while anesthetized for other reasons (fight wound, health check). Full ophthalmic examinations were undertaken under general anesthesia. Ocular ultrasonography, electroretinography, and photography were also performed. Forty-three bears (86 eyes) were examined. Mean Schirmer tear test (STT) = 12+/–6.2 (median 12, 95% CI –0.4–24.4) mm/min. Mean intraocular pressure (IOP) = 11.4+/–3.7 (median 12, 95% CI 4–18.8) mmHg excluding phthisical or grossly hydrophthalmic eyes. Ocular disease perceived to result in uni- or bilateral blindness was common (35 bears) with one or more of the following: phthisis bulbi (19 eyes; 13 bears), cataract (28 eyes; 17 bears), retinal detachment (29 eyes; 21 bears), and retinal degeneration (19 eyes; 16 bears) recorded frequently. Ocular ultrasound recorded mean axial globe diameter in non-phthisical/non-hydrophthalmic eyes as 16.5 +/–1.4 (median 16.4, 95% CI 13.7–19.3) mm and mean axial lens diameter of 4.9 +/–0.1 (median 4.7, 95% CI 4.7–5.1) mm. Blinding ocular disease was common, in particular, phthisis bulbi, retinal degeneration, and retinal detachment. Retinal detachment and phthisis bulbi may relate to blunt force ocular trauma prior to rescue, but ocular tuberculosis (TB) cannot be excluded, and retinal degeneration could result from a poor diet prior to rescue.

Nematodes of the superfamily Trichostrongyloidea, particularly abomasal species, have severe clinical implications associated with high morbidity and potential mortality of exotic ruminants housed in zoological institutions. The life cycle and ecology of Trichostrongyloid gastrointestinal nematodes (TGN) present challenges in their control including development of anthelmintic resistance and reinfection in high-density managed herds. Copper oxide wire particles (COWP) are used to help control TGN infections in ruminants, administered as a bolus or a feed additive. This study investigated the effects of frequent, low-dose administration of COWP fed as a top dressing on strongyle fecal egg counts (FEC) in gemsbok (Oryx gazella) and sable antelope (Hippotragus niger). Six years of FEC data (n = 33), obtained using a modified McMaster fecal flotation, were analyzed from individuals at Fossil Rim Wildlife Center, treated exclusively with commercially available COWP in a topdressing application dosed at 25 mg/kg every 30–60 days. COWP decreased FEC in both species by a mean FEC reduction ratio of 45%, a statistically significant difference (p < 0.05) using a one-tailed paired t-test log-stabilized to minimize variance; no clinically negative effects, including copper toxicity, were observed. COWP were more effective at reducing FEC in individuals with pre-treatment FEC greater than 1000 eggs/g of feces, a statistically significant difference (p < 0.05). We conclude that frequent, low dose, top dressing application of COWP is effective at reducing FEC in sable and gemsbok, but COWP should not serve as a stand-alone method or to treat clinically affected exotic ruminants.

Wildlife conservation law in Costa Rica protects common motmots (Momotus momota), limiting the specimens available to study their health and biology. This report describes the finding of the trematode Circumvitellatrema momota in the trachea, air sacs, lung, and celomatic cavity of two free-living M. momota. Histiocytic air sacculitis and pleuritis with granulomas containing trematodes, as well as adhesions between the air sacs and pericardium, were observed. In addition, histiocytic pneumonia, air sacculitis, celomitis, ulcerative tracheitis, and necrotizing histiocytic hepatitis showing intralesional parasites were detected. Eggs with morphology compatible with C. momota were found in the feces of both birds. To our knowledge, this is the first report of C. momota in motmots of Central America. As may be seen in the second case, severe respiratory compromise was possibly affecting the bird's capacity to fly. Longitudinal studies of the host, parasite, and environment are necessary to understand the implication for C momota infection to the health and survival of the common motmot.

Serum protein analyses are beneficial tools used to evaluate the health status of animals in a clinical veterinary setting. Capillary zone electrophoresis (CZE) is becoming more commonly used in diagnostic laboratories, and commercial reagents for the quantitation of acute phase proteins (APP) are available for validation in nondomesticated mammals. With increased numbers of red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) presenting to wildlife facilities with sarcoptic mange, there is a potential for a clinically impactful tool in protein electrophoresis and/or APP quantitation in this species. In this study, we evaluated 29 samples from 17 free-ranging red foxes from Illinois by CZE and APP quantitation. Serum amyloid A (SAA) reagents were validated for use in this species. Of the 17 red foxes enrolled in this study, 7 of them were successfully treated for sarcoptic mange, rehabilitated, and released or transferred to a licensed wildlife rehabilitator for continued care. All red foxes that were successfully treated in this study exhibited decreased SAA levels before release or transfer from the facility, and six of the seven red foxes showed a decrease in γ-globulin levels on release or transfer compared with intake. The results of this study provide preliminary data on serum protein analyses of red foxes, and these assays may have applications as diagnostic tools for assessing the health of the species.

Amyloidosis is the pathologic extracellular deposition of amyloid, a proteinaceous substance, in various tissues and organs. The most common form of amyloidosis in domestic animals is amyloid A amyloidosis, though amyloid light chain, amyloid β, and islet amyloid polypeptide amyloidosis have been documented. In reptiles, amyloidosis, or amyloid-like disorders, are considered rare. This research brief reviews an index case in a California kingsnake (Lampropeltis getula californiae) with amyloid-like deposition in the liver associated with fatal hepatic hematoma formation. In a review of 9,677 snakes in the archives of Northwest ZooPath from 1998 to 2019, 10 other cases (0.001%) of amyloid-like deposition in snakes were found, colubrids were overrepresented (n = 7; 64%), and most cases (n = 6; 54%) were greater than 15 yr of age at postmortem exam. Histologically, the liver was the most commonly affected organ (n = 10; 91%), with the kidney and heart affected less commonly. Amyloid-like material stained lightly positive with Congo red, was slightly positive with the periodic acid–Schiff reaction and did not stain with Masson trichrome stain. Ultrastructurally, amyloid-like material was composed of unbranched 10.27- to 13.20-nm-wide fibrils. Two cases had concurrent neoplasia, and inflammation was noted histologically in seven total cases. Four of the cases had no evidence of concurrent inflammation. The data described here indicate that amyloidosis in reptiles may be an aging change and not necessarily associated with inflammation or other disease processes.

This study aimed to perform upper digestive endoscopy in clinically healthy coatis (Nasua nasua), based on descriptions in domestic dogs and cats. In addition, research was carried out for Helicobacter in stomach samples. Five adult male coatis, weighing between 2.8 and 4.2 kg, kept in captivity were used. The examination was performed by using a flexible video endoscope with the animals under dissociative anesthesia and positioned in the left lateral decubitus. In general, endoscopic findings among animals were similar. The opening of the upper esophageal sphincter had an oval shape. The esophagus had a pale pink, smooth, and shiny mucosa, with submucosal vessels along its entire length. The contour of the trachea was evident with the impression of a curved appearance on the esophagus wall. Pulsation of the aortic arch was identified in the midthoracic region. The lower esophageal sphincter had an irregular shape resembling a star. In the stomach, rough folds and a mucous membrane with a darker pink color than the esophageal mucosa were observed. The antrum did not have the presence of mucous folds. The pylorus had an oval appearance with peristaltic movements, and the duodenal mucosa had a light pink color. The rapid urease test and histopathologic examination of stomach samples were negative for Helicobacter spp. In conclusion, upper digestive endoscopy of clinically healthy coatis has several similarities with those of domestic dogs and cats, without Helicobacter identification in stomach samples.

Vaccinating African wild dogs (Lycaon pictus) against canine distemper virus (CDV) using live attenuated vaccines (LAV) has been controversial because of limitations in the vaccines' effectiveness and safety. However, CDV is a significant pathogen for African wild dogs, and CDV LAV are currently the only vaccines readily available on the African continent, making them a crucial tool for in situ conservation. There are few studies exploring immunogenicity of CDV LAV, and even less information pertaining to optimal vaccination protocols. This study reports the use of CDV LAV Vanguard^TM Plus 5/L in 16 African wild dogs from two sibling groups with initial inoculation at approximately 6–7 wk of age. The majority (81%, n = 13) of pups generated protective titers after initial vaccination. One pup died of CDV-suspected neurological disease within 17 d of initial vaccination. All remaining dogs received a second dose, and 100% of those achieved protective immunity (as per domestic dog reference values). Protective antibody titers were maintained throughout the sampling period of 284 and 373 d from the second vaccination. The risk of possible vaccine-induced disease cannot be excluded, but may be a sustainable risk compared with the protective potential of CDV LAV for African wild dogs.

As top predators, birds of prey play a vital role in maintaining ecological balance, making their conservation essential. This retrospective study examined risk factors influencing the release or mortality of raptors treated at three rehabilitation centers in southern Brazil. Of 1,035 raptors admitted, Strigiformes were the most common, particularly Megascops choliba (tropical screech owl). Most admitted birds were adults (46.57%) admitted during the Southern Hemisphere's spring (36.91%). The musculoskeletal system was the most frequently affected (44.84%). Risk factors for mortality or euthanasia included age, with adults more likely to die than chicks. Raptors with one body system affected were 17 times more likely to die or be euthanized than those with none, and this increased to 62 times with two systems affected. Respiratory injuries had a higher fatality rate compared with other systems. Time in captivity was positively correlated with release rates; raptors treated longer had a 0.98 greater chance of being reintroduced into the wild. Compared with younger birds, the prognosis was worse for adult raptors admitted with two affected body systems. These results support veterinarians in rehabilitation centers by aiding decision-making and strengthening conservation efforts.

Three cases of benign ossifying proliferations of the ventral mandible were diagnosed in a 22-month-old female Malayan tapir (Tapirus indicus), a 12-year-old male Malayan tapir, and a 19-month-old male okapi (Okapi johnstoni) at the Denver Zoo Conservation Alliance. The cases each presented with a firm, nonpainful mandibular swelling that would wax and wane in size and were minimally progressive radiographically. Positive reinforcement training, which included scratch down and station standing techniques, was used to obtain serial radiographs. Radiographs revealed mild periosteal proliferation ventral to cheek teeth with no tooth root involvement. A biopsy of the juvenile tapir's mandibular swelling confirmed benign ossifying exostosis. The other two animals did not have biopsies performed and their diagnoses were presumed to be the same as the juvenile tapir's due to similar radiographic findings. The clinical appearance of these lesions can resemble malignant diseases such as osteomyelitis, tumors, or dental maleruptions of ungulates. However, the lesions in the juvenile okapi and female Malayan tapir were found to be unrelated to adult tooth eruption, and the male Malayan tapir was an adult with complete permanent dentition. The mandibular swellings persist in both the okapi and adult tapir cases, respectively, four and two years after identification of each. No further histopathology has been performed in the three cases and the juvenile tapir was lost to follow-up. To the authors' knowledge, this is the first report of ossifying exostosis in a Malayan tapir and suspect diagnosis in an okapi. Benign ossifying exostosis should be a differential diagnosis for facial swellings in ungulates and further investigation including histopathology and long-term follow-up is warranted.

The garden dormouse is listed as “near threatened” on the IUCN Red List of threatened species. Research on this species concentrates primarily on their hibernating strategies and physiology. However, little is known about infectious entities in this species, even less about neoplastic diseases. This case series presents the first report of different neoplasms in a population of garden dormice (Eliomys quercinus) under human care. This report includes six animals (four males, two females, four to seven years old). Four animals were euthanized, and two were found dead in the enclosure. Tissues of the animals were stained with Hematoxylin and eosin. Special staining (methyl green pyronin, desmin, vimentin, and cytokeratin) was performed to confirm diagnoses. Tumors found in these animals consisted of a pancreatic adenocarcinoma, a plasma cell tumor, an osteosarcoma, and three sarcomas. Because of their declining population trend and efforts of reintroduction, knowledge about diseases is imperative, especially, if there might be a genetic influence, which could hinder the success of conservation efforts.

Cardiac disease is a common cause of mortality in many primates housed in zoological settings. At the Bronx Zoo, between 2007 and 2018, there were ten incidences of sudden cardiac death in adult male geladas (Theropithecus gelada), none of which showed premonitory signs. Due to concerns of occult cardiac disease and fatal arrhythmogenic events, complete cardiac examinations were performed in three clinically normal, adult male geladas. Examinations included thoracic radiographs, transthoracic echocardiograms (echo), 12-lead ECG, and continuous ECG monitoring using an Implantable Loop Recorder (Reveal LINQ^TM Medtronic, Minneapolis, MN 55432, USA). Serum lipid profiles, vitamin E concentration, cardiac troponin I isoform (cTnI), and complete blood work were also performed. Wireless downloads from the implantable loop recorders were obtained intermittently for up to 2.5 years after placement. One male had an elevated cTnI level (210 ng/L), reduced ejection fraction (46%), and multiple episodes of supraventricular tachycardia and non-sustained ventricular tachycardia. Due to the abnormalities on ECG and echo, he was treated with metoprolol and lisinopril. Treatment was continued for nearly two years, until the animal had sudden cardiac death secondary to sustained ventricular fibrillation, which was confirmed by postmortem download of the loop recorder data and correlated with histologic evidence of cardiomyopathy. Implantable loop recorders greatly enhance the ability to diagnose and treat arrhythmias in primates and understand the mechanisms behind sudden cardiac deaths. Further studies are needed to establish cTnI, echocardiogram, and electrocardiogram reference ranges for this species, as well as appropriate treatment protocols.

Ferlaviruses have been associated with significant mortality events in squamates. Over a 5-month period in 2012, a mortality event at the Phoenix Zoo involved seven rattlesnakes (Crotalus spp.), a Sonoran gopher snake (Pituophis catenifer affinis), and a Gila monster (Heloderma suspectum). All individuals had been managed within the same group of enclosures at the zoo, and many of the affected individuals had previously been housed together. Clinical signs during the outbreak included sudden death, agonal behavior, anorexia, regurgitation, and loss of body condition. Histologic findings were similar in all animals, with lesions primarily in the respiratory tract and pancreas; these findings were consistent with viral infection, and in five of the seven cases for which samples were submitted, RT-PCR identified a genogroup C Ferlavirus. The findings in this outbreak support the possibility of cross-species viral transmission and clinical disease associated with genogroup C Ferlavirus infection and suggest persistence of paramyxoviral infection within captive reptile populations. These findings have widespread implications for the management of mixed reptile species habitats in zoological and private collections, and suggest a need to include all reptiles, not just snakes, in preshipment and quarantine investigation of potential ferlavirus infection.

Squamous cell carcinoma (SCC) is a malignant epidermal tumor. Biologic behavior and metastasis rate vary according to species and tumor location. The goal of this study was to report the occurrence and behavior of an oral SCC in a Tapirus terrestris treated with electrochemotherapy. The tapir was anesthetized for two electrochemotherapy sessions, six months apart, with intralesional cisplatin (0.25 mL/cm³) and VetCP 125^TM electroporator. Side effects were minimal. Because of tumor relapse, onset of joint disorders, and poor prognosis, the animal was euthanized and submitted to necropsy, followed by histopathological and immunohistochemical analyses. Electrochemotherapy significantly improved the tapiŕs life quality. Tumor bleeding resolved, and food uptake was improved. Necropsy demonstrated tumor invasion in adjacent soft tissues and bones and submandibular lymph nodes with multiple areas of metastasis. Overall survival time of 35 months was achieved, with good life quality. Histopathologic characteristics were more aggressive in the relapsed tumor.