With well-preserved nature and a geographical location at the border of the West Carpathian and the East Carpathian biogeographical regions, the Poloniny National Park (NP) ranks among the most valuable areas for biodiversity in Slovakia. The territory is a typical region with mountain agriculture (12% of the study area), where grasslands dominate in an agricultural landscape. Grasslands became the basis of traditional farming many years ago, when extensive agriculture was mainly focused on hay production and grazing, representing the lifestyle of the local people. This kind of sensitive human management contributed to the maintenance of valuable grassland communities and their rich biodiversity. In particular, the mountain poloniny meadows are characterized by large numbers of rare and threatened East Carpathian species. Intensification of agriculture from the 1970s and its decline after the massive political and socioeconomic changes of 1989 have caused substantial damage to species-rich grasslands in the region. Implementation of the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) is now providing greater financial support to restart agricultural activities in the Poloniny National Park. Nonetheless, there is still concern about maintenance of the biodiversity of mountain grassland communities, where access is limited, and which require specific extensive management. This paper aims to identify the driving forces of agrobiodiversity change and the implications for habitats and species, and to predict possible future trends in the region. Emerging from the assessment of these trends, several recommendations are made regarding appropriate management measures for the maintenance of agrobiodiversity together with sustainable development in Poloniny National Park.

Swidden agriculture is central to the livelihoods and culture of the Dulong people in northwest Yunnan, China. In 2002, the Sloping Land Conversion Program (SLCP) was first being implemented in the Dulong Valley. Under this program, all swidden land and most permanent arable lands were converted to forest, in return for which villagers received grain subsidies. In view of the importance of traditional agriculture in Dulong livelihoods and culture, and the potential uniqueness of agrobiodiversity in the Dulong Valley, the Center for Biodiversity and Indigenous Knowledge (CBIK), a nongovernmental organization based in Yunnan, has been undertaking surveys and action research on the impacts of the SLCP since 2005. By drawing on previous studies, data provided by the local government, and a new survey of the current status of traditional crop cultivation conducted in 2 villages in 2009, this article describes some of the impacts of the SLCP on agrobiodiversity, livelihoods, and traditional culture in the Dulong Valley. Results of surveys found that, before 2002, at least 12 crop types were commonly planted in swiddens, including 7 underutilized species. By 2009, only a minority of households continued to cultivate these crops. Changes in land use and grain availability have also led to a significant reduction in the number of livestock raised, and, in some cases, animal genetic diversity is being threatened. Elder Dulong villagers are concerned that these changes will lead to the erosion of traditional culture. The article also describes activities that are now being conducted to conserve agrobiodiversity and support cultural transmission in Dulong Valley. Events such as seed fairs, arts competitions, and revival of swidden cultivation on a small scale have attracted the attention of villagers and local government, and conservation of agrobiodiversity through value addition is now on the agenda.

The Colombian environmental policy voted in 1993, which aimed to strengthen the protection of natural resources, particularly biodiversity and water, is totally unfavorable to farming in the strategic páramo ecosystem. However, many rural development practitioners and researchers believe that integrated management of the páramo is possible and that farming activities can be part of the solution along this agriculture–conservation frontier. This issue has become particularly acute on the Rabanal páramo (western cordillera), in Colombia, where the projected expansion of a core protection zone will soon include major areas currently used for agriculture and settlements. Although small-scale farmers have been living there for decades, the environmental authorities are intent on prohibiting farming activities in the entire protection area. A study of local history and aerial photos indicates that this zone has been a dynamic part of local farming systems since at least the 1950s and that the páramo has evolved from a subsistence farming area to a zone that now includes intensive potato production conducted by external entrepreneurs. The presence of these entrepreneurs is mainly due to small-scale farmers' need for a cost-effective solution to maintain the productivity of their pastures. By interviewing participants in the debate, as well as by mapping agricultural land that will soon be included in the protected area, objectives for action were developed that would result in more sustainable farming practices, thus enhancing the conservation of páramo biodiversity and water resources.

Botanical species and morphological and genetic diversity represent different yet linked units of conservation. These features, and their spatial distribution in the central Peruvian Andean highlands of Huancavelica, were used as a basis for characterizing and quantifying potato agrobiodiversity at different scales. Results show that individual farm households maintain high levels of cultivar, morphological, and genetic diversity. At the regional level, all cultivated species, with the exception of Solanum ajanhuiri, were found to be present. Tetraploid native potatoes were most abundant, followed by diploids, triploids, and pentaploids. Morphological characterization of 2481 samples belonging to 38 in situ collections resulted in the identification of 557 unique cultivars. Genetic fingerprinting of 989 samples belonging to 8 in situ collections resulted in the identification of 406 unique cultivars. The principal source of genetic variation is found within rather than between geographically distanced subpopulations. High levels of cultivar diversity are found, particularly at elevations between 3850 and 4150 m.

Direct seeding has recently regained favor as an alternative method to conventional planting for restoration of degraded and/or abandoned sites. This study reports the establishment and growth performance of 2 pioneer (Pinus kesiya and Schima wallichii) and 2 later-successional (Keteleeria evelyniana and Quercus serrata) native trees broadcasted or buried on 14 former grazing lands in Laos. Seedling establishment was assessed 9 months after sowing; height, diameter growth, and mortality were measured 1, 3, and 5 years after direct seeding and subjected to analysis of variance. Significant interspecies and intersite variations were detected for most of the measured parameters (P < .05). Seedling establishment success was better for buried seeds of Q. serrata (49–65%) and K. evelyniana (20–59%) than for broadcasted seeds of P. kesiya (13–50%), S. wallichii (3–34%), and K. evelyniana (6–22%). Intersite variation might be related to topography-induced microhabitat conditions. The annual rate of mortality, averaged over all sites, was significantly (P < .0001) high for S. wallichii (38 ± 1%) followed by P. kesiya (30 ± 2.0%), Q. serrata (29 ± 2%), and K. evelyniana (22 ± 4%). The 2 pioneer species achieved better diameter and height growth than the later-successional species. We conclude that direct seeding seems to be possible for rehabilitation of abandoned sites, provided that the seeds are buried to avoid the risk of seed desiccation and predation; the seeding rate of pioneer species is reduced to avoid a high mortality rate, and species-site matching is well defined to minimize topography-induced changes in a microhabitat.

We quantified plant diversity patterns according to changes in species composition, floristic richness, and species diversity in various plant communities in the Shilin karst area (24°38′–24°58′N, 103°11′–103°29′E, altitude 1600–2203 m) of central Yunnan, China, in which the previous land use had been documented. Cluster analysis of floristic similarity of all the stands showed that plant species composition and diversity were primarily influenced by the legacies of land use (as coppices, pastures, and plantations). The DCA (detrended correspondence analysis) grouped 14 sampling transects into 3 plant communities, including a shrubland, a mixed deciduous and evergreen broad-leaved stand (secondary forest), and a premature semihumid evergreen broad-leaved stand (natural premature forest), along a disturbance gradient. We also analyzed Pinus plantations. While plant species diversity was particularly low in the Pinus plantation, stands developing (secondary forest) on former coppice sites were becoming increasingly similar to the natural premature forest. The results would indicate that vegetation and plant species diversity is more efficiently restored by letting degraded vegetation regrow rather than establishing plantations.

Invasive plants have spread all over the world, including the Himalayan region. In 2009, the distribution pattern of invasive alien plants was studied on 38 plots, from 100 to 4200 m, in Arunachal Pradesh and Assam, India. Eighteen invasive alien plants (frequency >5%) from 7 families were recorded, of which 15 species (83.3%) were from North and South America. The most common plants by both frequency and coverage (>50%) were Ageratum conyzoides, Chromolaena odorata, and Mikania micrantha. Species composition changed with altitude. Thirteen species grew in the tropical zone, 10 in the subtropical, 6 in the temperate. and 1, Taraxacum officinale, in the subalpine zone. We suggest that low temperature and snowfall in the highlands may filter nonadapted species from tropical regions and that recent construction and use of roads facilitate the establishment of invasive alien plants. Although several invasive alien plants were regarded as noxious weeds, local residents in the study area mentioned their beneficial uses: A. conyzoides and Solanum carolinense are used as medicine, Galinsoga quadriradiata is used as a vegetable, and Eichhornia crassipes is used to improve fish growth in aquaculture. Information from scientific assessment and local perception of invasive alien plants will assist in the development of appropriate plant resource management plans in Arunachal Himalaya.

Cultural diversity in remote mountain regions is closely linked to biodiversity, as there is a symbiotic relationship between habitats and cultures, and between ecosystems and cultural identity; indeed, religious rules and rituals often strengthen this relationship and are characterized by a conservation ethic. The present paper presents an analysis of information collected from knowledgeable members of mountain communities in the State of Uttarakhand, Central Himalaya. The data collected are analyzed within the framework of traditional knowledge-based systems (TKBS) methodology, using the conservation purpose of rules and practices as a means of typifying the information on sacred natural sites (forests/groves, pastures, water bodies), on the phenomenon of dedicating forests to a deity, on the inherent taboos regarding resource exploitation, and on other traditional beliefs and customs, in order to understand the environmental and conservationist implications of these rules and practices. The analysis shows that the cultural precepts of remote Uttarakhand mountain communities can be considered a precondition for sustainable development. In fact, the association of religion with ecosystem management is inherent in traditional Himalayan communities' culture; one cannot think of ecological systems in the Himalaya without religion. However, this knowledge and related conservation rules need to be strengthened in the face of current change.

The alpine vegetation of the Sikkim Himalaya has received limited attention despite being a part of the Eastern Himalaya global biodiversity hotspot. The current study undertaken in the third highest landscape in the world—the Khangchendzonga National Park (KNP)—provides information on the different alpine vegetation communities and aspects of their ecology. The transverse spurs from the unique north–south Khangchendzonga range result in a landscape level differentiation of the Outer, Inner, and Tibetan Himalaya in just 50 km. The alpine vegetation based on numerical classification has been segregated into 11 types with the extensive ones being Juniperus indica scrub, Rhododendron scrub, Kobresia duthiei moist meadow, Kobresia nepalensis moist meadow, Kobresia pygmaea dry meadow, and Anaphalis xylorhiza mixed meadow. Based on Canonical Correspondence Analysis, the 3 environmental gradients of rainfall, elevation, and soil were found to be the primary determinants of vegetation patterns. A total of 585 species of angiosperms belonging to 67 families and 243 genera were recorded in a 390-km² area. Compared to the Western Himalaya, proportions of alpine scrub and sedge meadows were higher, whereas herbaceous formations and grassy meadows were limited in extent. The alpha species diversity was found to be lower mainly because the alpine region here is partly isolated, narrower, fragmented, and dominated by a depauperated scrub zone.

This study explores the elevational richness patterns of vascular and cryptogam species in the highest alpine zone in the world, the Tibet/Xizang Autonomous Region (78°25′–99°06′E, 26°50′–36°53′N). The data are based on the published flora for vascular plants, bryophytes, and lichens. Elevational ranges have been interpolated for each species recorded in the flora at altitudes between 4500 and 6000 m into 16 elevational bands of 100 m each. A species is assumed to be present at all elevational bands between its lower and upper limits as recorded in the flora. Total richness has been further subcategorized into richness of different functional groups and some dominant angiosperm families. Generalized linear models (GLMs) up to 3 orders are applied to assess the relationship between species richness and elevation and the statistically most appropriate model based on the highest F value among the significant models is selected. A total of 1585 species, 385 genera, and 111 families are recorded in the flora from this part of the alpine zone. Flowering plants are represented by 1328 species, 261 genera, and 54 families. A significant decreasing quadratic relation with increasing elevation is the most common pattern among most of the functional groups. Bryophytes, lichens, and their functional groups show a linear declining pattern except for a quadratic relation in foliose lichen richness. A significant unimodal relation is found with some angiosperm families. The patterns found are both similar and dissimilar to published results from studies using interpolation or direct observations. Scale, environmental heterogeneities, stress, disturbance, and tolerance by individual species are the likely causes for these patterns.

A protected areas system (PAS) is effective only when it adequately includes a representative sample of important geophysical and biological features, including critically endangered biota of a region. However, protected areas in Nepal, as in many parts of the world, have been established on an ad hoc basis, and thus one or more important features have been overlooked. We conducted a gap analysis and developed a comparison index to assess the representativeness of geophysical features (physiography, altitude, and ecoregions), species diversity, and endangered species listed in International Union for Nature Conservation (IUCN) and Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) by using a Geographical Information System (GIS) framework. The analysis indicated that more than two thirds (67.84%) of the total area of protected areas (PAs) is in high mountains, although this region accounts for only 23.92% of the country's total area. The hills comprise the highest proportion (29.17%) of the country's area but currently have the smallest proportion (1.33%) of PAs. The altitudinal zones between 200–400 m are well represented with PAs; however, the region between 400–2700 m is poorly represented, and representation by PAs is comparatively higher in the area above 2800 m. The ecoregions that have high conservation priority at global scale are poorly represented in protected areas of Nepal. Existing PAs include 39.62% of flowering plants, 84.53% of mammals, 95.73% of birds, and 70.59% of herpetofauna of the country. Threatened animal species are well protected, whereas a large number of threatened plant species are not represented by the current PA system.

During the summer and fall of 2005 while documenting snow leopard (Panthera uncia) abundance (McCarthy et al 2008), we collected ancillary camera-trap photos taken in the Tien Shan Mountains of Kyrgyzstan and assessed their usefulness for biodiversity surveys of larger animal species. The study was conducted in 2 separate areas; one that had been declared a strictly protected national park, and a second that had no formal protection but was used as a hunting reserve by foreign interests. By using 22–24 pairs of cameras placed for 49 days in both areas, we photographed 9 of 13 probably occurring large (>1 kg) mammal species identified in a country-wide review. Of the 9 species that appeared in photographs, 4 also were identified genetically from simultaneously collected scat samples. Two species identified by the genetic sample were not photographed. Photo rates differed between areas and corresponded to independent abundance estimates for snow leopards (from fecal genetic individual identification), and for argali (Ovus ammon) and Siberian ibex (Capra ibex; both from visual surveys). The photo rates of ungulates were highest, and those for large carnivores were lowest, in the “strictly protected area,” which suggested an effect from illicit control of predators by occupants of the surrounding villages. In contrast, in the unprotected area, where hunting was managed and local residents and visitors were few, the species diversity and photo rates for most species were higher. Our use of ancillary camera-trap photos was valuable for authenticating species presence and, sometimes, for documenting differences in species abundances between areas with different conservation histories. In addition, this study indicates the importance of continued outreach and collaboration with villagers to ensure effective wildlife conservation within Kyrgyz national parks.

The University of Central Asia (UCA) was founded in 2000 by the governments of Kazakhstan, the Kyrgyz Republic, and Tajikistan, and by His Highness the Aga Khan, with the aim of offering an internationally recognized standard of higher education in Central Asia and of producing knowledgeable, skilled, and creative graduates who will contribute leadership, ideas, and innovations to the transitioning economies and communities of the region. Campuses are located in the mountain communities of Khorog (Tajikistan), Naryn (Kyrgyz Republic), and Tekeli (Kazakhstan). UCA's mission is to promote the socioeconomic development of Central Asia's mountain societies, while at the same time helping the diverse peoples of the region to preserve and draw upon their rich cultural traditions and heritages as assets for the future.

Agriculture has a long history in Georgia; it has led to a great variety of ancient crops. However, this diversity is under threat for many reasons. First, introduced crops have caused a loss of traditional cultivars, because the introduced crops are preferred due to their higher yield. Moreover, agricultural machines such as forage and grain combine harvesters imported to Georgia are constructed for widely distributed, imported crops and cannot be used to harvest local cultivars. Until recently, genetic erosion of ancient crop varieties was not a problem in the mountain areas of Georgia, which until the 1990s constituted a depository of local crop varieties of wheat, barley, rye, oat, common millet, traditional legumes, vegetables, herbs, and spice plants with specific varieties adapted to mountain conditions. These mountain areas worked as a depository because local mountain communities preserved their traditional ways of life and socioeconomic structures. Their traditional agricultural equipment, used on a large scale until the 1990s, still allows them to maintain areas under cultivation (with grain or other crops) on steep slopes and at high elevations where modern tractors cannot be used. Moreover, some old landraces of wheat and barley are still being used to prepare bread and beer for religious rituals. Currently, many endemic and native representatives of crop plants are in danger of extinction. International nature conservation institutions and Georgian scientific and nongovernmental organizations have developed plans to preserve the genetic resources of local cultivars.