Disturbance-dependent shrublands and the birds that nest in them are declining due to factors that include fire suppression and tree encroachment. Mechanical treatments are often used to decrease the threat of wildfire in sensitive areas, such as the wildland-urban interface, and could be used for restoration. We evaluated the use of mechanical mastication (also called mulching or chipping) to restore early-successional structure to oak-dominated shrublands in Texas, which provide nesting habitat for the endangered black-capped vireo (Vireo atricapilla Woodhouse). After mastication, overall vegetation height remained low for at least four growing seasons (pretreatment: 2.9 ± 0.1 m, mean ± SE; year 4: 1.1 ± 0.1 m). Canopy-sized Ashe juniper (Juniperus ashei Buchholz) was eliminated by mastication for the duration of the study, but other woody species remained abundant, maintaining vegetation density below 1 m. Black-capped vireos foraged in the masticated areas during the first and second breeding seasons after treatment, and started nesting in them during the third breeding season. By the fourth breeding season, breeding pairs were more than twice as abundant as before mastication (mean of 8.7 vs. 3.7 territories) and nests were farther from existing trails (mean ± SE of 39.9 ± 8.2 m vs. 18.4 ± 3.5 m), indicating that the birds were using more of the available space for breeding. We did not find a difference in the probability of nests in masticated areas surviving over the 28-day period from egg laying to fledging compared to nests from other areas (95% CI 0.28–0.62 and 0.18–0.47, respectively). Mastication is an effective substitute for prescribed fire to restore early-successional structure in shrublands dominated by resprouting woody plants and can also provide short-term control of nonsprouting species.

Population declines of several successional-scrub bird species are partly associated with decreased habitat availability as abandoned farmlands return to forest and recently harvested forests regrow. Restoration of mixed-oak (Quercus spp.) forest is also a concern because of widespread oak regeneration failure, especially on moist, productive sites where competition from faster-growing tree species is fierce following stand-replacing disturbances. Several silvicultural methods are proposed to promote oak regeneration but many are not experimentally tested, especially on productive sites. We surveyed birds in 19 stands to assess response to initial application of three proposed oak regeneration treatments on productive sites: prescribed burning (B); oak shelterwood by midstory herbicide (OSW); shelterwood harvests (SW); and controls (C), for one breeding season before, and two breeding seasons after, implementation. Relative density of successional-scrub species Indigo Buntings (Passerina cyanea), Eastern Towhees (Pipilo erythrophthalmus), and Chestnut-sided Warblers (Setophaga pensylvanica) increased, while Ovenbirds (Seiurus aurocapilla) decreased within 11 to 18 months after SW harvests; understory disturbance treatments B or OSW had no effect. Our results indicated that partial harvests created habitat for breeding birds associated with both young and mature forests, whereas understory treatments had little effect. Additionally, we show that even small patches of young forest habitat are used by more individuals and more species of breeding birds than surrounding closed-canopy forest, and may benefit successional-scrub species by enabling their occurrence in an otherwise forested landscape. Absence of several lower-elevation successional-scrub bird species in our mid-elevation SW harvests suggests that comprehensive conservation in the southern Appalachians necessitates creating and maintaining young forest habitats across elevation gradients.

Tree cavities are vital resources for many animals, especially birds and mammals. We aimed to determine density of cavity resources in coniferous spruce-pine (Pinus/Picea genera) stands of the Białowieża Forest, Poland, and to correlate their presence with tree species composition, and characteristics of trees and stands (condition, DBH, basal area). We conducted studies in spruce-pine stands with no (national park), medium (seminatural reserves), and high (managed forest) management activity. We measured all trees within 50-m × 50-m sample plots (eight plots in each zone) and searched for all tree cavities. The highest density of cavities was observed in the national park (12.5/ha) and the lowest in managed plots (3.0/ha). Most cavities were found in dead trees (74.4%), mainly in pines Pinus sylvestris L. The basal area of dead pines within the stand was the best predictor of cavity presence on sample plots. Our results confirm a key role of pine snags in natural coniferous stands. Forest management leads to dramatic reduction of tree cavity resources in managed stands. We suggest that the leaving or creation of pine snags is the most effective method of providing or retaining cavity resources in commercial coniferous forests in Europe.

Temperate grasslands worldwide have been reduced to remnants as a result of urban, rural, and oil and gas activities. One of the largest remaining tracts of temperate grassland is located in central Alberta, Canada: a provincial protected natural area known as Rumsey Block. Although Rumsey Block has been protected from urban and rural development, oil and gas activities have been allowed. We analyzed the change in plant communities from several oil and gas disturbances over an eleven-year period. We developed a state and transition model displaying consequences of disturbances from grazing and oil and gas development on rough fescue grassland, considered the reference stable state. Transitions were no, light, or moderate grazing and minimum oil and gas disturbance, such as plow-in pipelines, small area well sites (<25 m²) and sites seeded with native species or left to natural recovery. Triggers, causing change from rough fescue grassland to altered states, were heavy grazing, and moderate to major oil and gas disturbances, such as topsoil stripping and seeding with introduced species. Within the reference state, three plant communities were identified, varying from rough fescue (Festuca hallii) grassland to grazing-induced variations where shortbristle needle and thread (Hesperostipa curtiseta) became dominant. Two altered states were identified: Introduced Grasses and Native Grasses. All altered states were deemed to have crossed a threshold requiring complete eradication of species and reseeding. Based on these results, we recommend minimum disturbance in grasslands, such as light grazing, plow-in pipelines, small areas well sites, and natural recovery.

Conducting dormant season or springtime prescribed fire treatments has become a common practice in many regions of the United States to restore ecosystems to their natural state. Despite the knowledge that historically, fires often occurred during the summer, the application of summer burns has been deterred, in part, by a lack of understanding of fire season effects on vegetation. We explored the differences in fire effects between spring and summer burns at Voyageurs National Park, Minnesota. The fire season effects on the ground layer vegetation were clearly different among the treatments: pre-burn, spring, and summer. Vegetation composition of pre-burn and after spring fires was similar, but differed significantly from the summer fires. Spring fires propagated the same species that were present prior to the fire, whereas summer fires promoted a new suite of species through the germination of seedbank and high seed dispersal species. Cover and richness of seed bank and intolerant species were greatest after the summer fires, which contributed to the peak in richness found across all reproductive and tolerance attributes five years after these fires. Post summer fire composition showed shifts in composition through time. Substantial differences in the effects of burn seasonality on ground layer vegetation should be considered in long term restoration efforts to help maintain species diversity in red and white pine forest ecosystems.

Reed canarygrass (Phalaris arundinacea L.) is an invasive species that forms dense, monotypic stands in wetlands, moist meadows, and riparian areas. We implemented a reed canarygrass removal study at five sites in eastern South Dakota using imazapyr, imazapic, and glyphosate individually and in combination. Eight treatments (five in fall, two in spring, and a control) were applied at each location in fall 2005—spring 2006. Herbicides were applied over clipped vegetation that had residual vegetation removed. Reed canarygrass cover was 93% in untreated plots, and ranged from 21%–66% in herbicide treated plots at the conclusion of the study. Herbicide treatments containing imazapyr provided control for two growing seasons.

Invasive plants may have negative, positive, or neutral effects on the reproductive success of native plant species. In this study, I investigated the impact of the rhizomatous invasive species Securigera varia (Fabaceae; crown vetch; synonym: Coronilla varia) on the reproductive success of the native prairie species Tradescantia ohiensis (Commelinaceae; Ohio spiderwort). In particular, I examined how T. ohiensis plant height, fruit set, seed set, and stigma pollen load differed inside or at the edge of crown vetch patches and within native prairie not invaded by crown vetch. A significant reduction in reproductive success and pollen deposition was detected among T. ohiensis plants in the interior of a crown vetch patch compared to those at the edge of a crown vetch patch. These, in turn, had lower reproductive success and pollen deposition than plants in the native prairie areas. Also, T. ohiensis plants were taller inside crown vetch patches. The results of this study suggest that rhizomatous invasive species such as Securigera varia can have direct and indirect impacts on the reproductive success of native species.

Taxus baccata L. is a rare and endangered species in India. It is a medium-sized (10–20 m tall) evergreen tree. It produces the anti-cancer drug Taxol (paclitaxel). Taxol is also used for treating bronchitis, asthma, epilepsy, snake bites, scorpion stings, internal injuries, lung diseases, and diabetes. The main reasons for the decline of Himalayan yew are deforestation, browsing by herbivores, and commercialization of plants for extracting the drug. We concentrated our study in Pangi Valley (Chamba district, Himachal Pradesh). We worked with the local community to develop a strategy for conservation and sustainable use of Taxus baccata. We collected twigs of Taxus from the forest of Tandah (alt. 3900 m) of Pangi Valley, Chamba district. We rooted the twigs without any chemical treatments with the assistance of the local inhabitants near Purthi Village. We proved Taxus baccata could be propagated and grown in a nursery in Pangi Valley. Taxus cultivation can create income for local communities. We suggested Pangi Valley in Himachal Pradesh, India, as an Important Plant Area (IPA). We also felt participation of the government is a prime need for constant income through medicinal plants cultivation using ethnobotanical knowledge.

Restoration projects can involve a high degree of uncertainty and risk, which can ultimately result in failure. An adaptive restoration approach can reduce uncertainty through controlled, replicated experiments designed to test specific hypotheses and alternative management approaches. Key components of adaptive restoration include willingness of project managers to accept the risk inherent in experimentation, interest of researchers, availability of funding for experimentation and monitoring, and ability to restore sites as iterative experiments where results from early efforts can inform the design of later phases. This paper highlights an ongoing adaptive restoration project at Zion National Park (ZNP), aimed at reducing the cover of exotic annual Bromus on riparian terraces, and revegetating these areas with native plant species. Rather than using a trial-and-error approach, ZNP staff partnered with academic, government, and private-sector collaborators to conduct small-scale experiments to explicitly address uncertainties concerning biomass removal of annual bromes, herbicide application rates and timing, and effective seeding methods for native species. Adaptive restoration has succeeded at ZNP because managers accept the risk inherent in experimentation and ZNP personnel are committed to continue these projects over a several-year period. Techniques that result in exotic annual Bromus removal and restoration of native plant species at ZNP can be used as a starting point for adaptive restoration projects elsewhere in the region.

Aeschynomene virginica is a freshwater, tidal plant ranging from southern New Jersey to central North Carolina. This plant is listed as threatened in the United States. Population sizes vary greatly from year to year and population sites are often unoccupied several years before re-establishment. Despite long-term population monitoring and experiments, it is not clear if seed banks and seed dispersal or only seed banks re-establish unoccupied population sites. The removal of a dam on Vandell Preserve, New Kent County, Virginia, created a natural experiment that helps clarify the role of seed bank and seed dispersal processes. The establishment of new A. virginica populations on long-covered soils devoid of a seed bank would indicate successful seed dispersal. I review the seed bank and seed dispersal research for A. virginica and map populations before and after dam removal. Past research suggests A. virginica forms only a short-term seed bank that does not persist in buried or inundated soils. A survivorship model of buried seeds indicates maximum seed survival of eight years. Dispersal studies show that seeds leave populations floating on tidal streams, but the fate of these floating seeds is unknown. After dam removal, populations established on soils that had been covered by the dam or water for approximately 60 years. Hence, seeds can and do disperse from existing populations, float to unoccupied population sites, and establish populations. This knowledge will allow us to focus questions regarding the dynamics of re-established population sites. In addition, the results of this natural experiment show that A. virginica populations form metapopulations, in which the seed bank and seed dispersal jointly impact population extinction and re-establishment.

Exponential human population growth has resulted in overexploitation of resources, the introduction of alien invasive species, habitat destruction and fragmentation, and the subsequent global endangerment and extinction of many species. Globally, governmental, and nongovernmental programs, use nature reserves (NRs) to mitigate against the decline of biological diversity by protecting habitats and their inhabitants from fragmentation and other negative anthropogenic impacts. However, numerous studies conducted at multiple spatial and temporal scales have revealed that existing NRs do not effectively represent biodiversity, or are experiencing declines in biodiversity because of anthropogenic encroachment around NRs. Our study examined the spatial distribution and characteristics of the NR system in Alabama using coarse-filter gap analysis. We compiled a dataset of private and public NRs in Alabama, and analyzed the extent and effectiveness of Alabama's NR system in representing ecosystem diversity. We found that NRs occupied approximately 840,000 ha (6.2%) of land area in Alabama. Public NRs covered 6.0% of Alabama land area, and private NRs covered 0.2% of the land area. We found a latitudinal shift in NR parcels from majority private NR parcel presence in northeast Alabama to majority public parcel ownership in southwest Alabama. The statewide mean NR parcel area was 2149.47 ha; the mean public NR area was 4789 ha; the mean private NR area was 151 ha; and the mean distance (isolation) between NRs was 4.5 km. We hypothesize the distribution of parcel property types throughout Alabama was related to socioeconomic status, race, and metropolitan areas throughout the state. Our results may be used to improve conservation planning in Alabama, and our approach used as a model to assess NR systems in other states or regions.

Bromus tectorum is expanding across western North America. This spread is due to its own competitive abilities, land management practices, and unintended transport by the public as the plant's spikelets often lodge in clothing. Many assume that washing in a laundry machine makes the seeds nonviable: we decided to test this assumption. We hypothesized that seeds would exhibit lower rates of germination and emergence after being laundered, and the effect would be stronger if bleach was used. We found that washing with detergent, followed by drying, had no effect on germination when seeds were allowed to sprout 20 days later. We also found that a 6.0% solution of sodium hypochlorite bleach reduced germination and growth if planting occurred 180 days after laundering.