Because of the fragmentary preservation of the earliest Cooksonia-like terrestrial plant macrofossils, younger Devonian fossils with complete anatomical preservation and documented gametophytes often have received greater attention concerning the early evolution of vascular plants and the alternation of generations. Despite preservational deficits, however, possible physiologies of Cooksonia-like fossils can be constrained by considering the overall axis size in conjunction with the potential range of cell types and sizes, because their lack of organ differentiation requires that all plant functions be performed by the same axis. Once desiccation resistance, support, and transport functions are taken into account, smaller fossils do not have volume enough left over for an extensive aerated photosynthetic tissue, thus arguing for physiological dependence on an unpreserved gametophyte. As in many mosses, axial anatomy is more likely to have ensured continued spore dispersal despite desiccation of the sporophyte than to have provided photosynthetic independence. Suppositions concerning size constraints on physiology are supported by size comparisons with fossils of demonstrable physiological independence, by preserved anatomical detail, and by size correlations between axis, sporangia, and sporangial stalk in Silurian and Early Devonian taxa. Several Cooksonia-like taxa lump fossils with axial widths spanning over an order of magnitude—from necessary physiological dependence to potential photosynthetic competence—informing understanding of the evolution of an independent sporophyte and the phylogenetic relationships of early vascular plants.

Biodiversity patterns in the fossil record are often interpreted as functions of only origination and extinction whereas the migration of taxa among regions or paleocontinents is rarely considered. A null biogeographic model is presented that evaluates the role of migration in shaping global biodiversity patterns across evolutionary time scales. As taxa are allowed to originate, go extinct, and migrate among continents, the model keeps track of global richness and differentiation diversity (the diversity gained by pooling continents). The model's results highlight the difference between global-scale and continental-scale origination and extinction rates. Intuitively, origination and extinction have opposite effects on global richness at the global scale, but they interact with migration at the continental scale to influence differentiation diversity and global richness in surprising ways. The model shows that the migration of taxa among paleocontinents can facilitate an increase in global richness, even when continental extinction is greater than continental origination. Additionally, the model shows that differentiation diversity reaches a dynamic equilibrium that is dictated by the combination of migration, origination, and extinction rates. A test of the model with Ordovician macroinvertebrate data indicates that migration rates were low during the Ordovician and that differentiation diversity was high and varied little. Overall, the Ordovician was an interval of high provinciality. It also shown that widespread genera were less prone to global extinction, even though extinction of genera on individual paleocontinents was common.

Fossil marine lineages are generally expected to exhibit long-term trends of increasing body size because of inherent fitness advantages or secular changes in environmental conditions. Because empirical documentation of this trend during the Paleozoic has been lacking for most taxonomic groups, the magnitude, timing, and taxonomic breadth of the trend have remained elusive. This study uses the largest existing database of fossil invertebrate sizes from four faunally important phyla to document ecosystem-wide size trends in well-preserved biotas from deep-subtidal, soft-substrate assemblages during the Cambrian through Devonian. Size of type specimens was measured along standard body axes from monographic plates and converted to body volume by using a broadly applicable empirical regression. Results demonstrate that mean body size (herein volume) of individual genera doubles during this interval, especially from the Late Ordovician through Early Devonian. The timing is gradual in spite of major radiations and extinctions, and the increase is primarily attributable to a net increase in the three-dimensionality of genera. The overall increase is not caused by replacement among clades because increases are widespread among arthropods, brachiopods, and echinoderms, at the phylum and class levels; in contrast, mollusks do not display a net size change at either taxonomic level. The increase is also more pronounced in microbivores than in carnivores. Combined with known environmental changes during this interval, and especially records of carbon dioxide, these trends provide support for the claim that primary productivity increased during the early to mid Paleozoic.

We calculated water vapor conductance (a product of eggshell porosity) from the first definitively identified sauropod egg (Megaloolithus patagonicus) from the Auca Mahuevo locality in Argentina. We then compared the results with those from M. siruguei (an egg type long associated with sauropod dinosaurs) from the Pinyes locality in Spain. The 14-cm Auca Mahuevo egg has a thinner eggshell and 47 times fewer pores than the 22-cm M. siruguei specimen. The resulting water vapor conductance (G_H2O) of the titanosaur and M. siruguei eggs is 341 and 3979 mg H₂O day⁻¹ Torr⁻¹, respectively; these values are two and ten times greater than in avian eggs of comparable size, but lower than in eggs of most modern reptiles. Clutches from Auca Mahuevo typically contain 20–40 eggs; in contrast, M. siruguei clutches from the Pinyes site average nine eggs. The G_H2O of M. siruguei exceeds that of the Argentine egg by an order of magnitude, supporting previous inferences of egg burial. The G_H2O of the Argentine titanosaur egg closely approximates that of Troodon and some oviraptorid eggs, previously calculated as equal to or two times greater than, respectively, the G_H2O of avian eggs of similar size. Higher embryonic growth rates (relative to modern reptiles), especially in some dinosaurs with large clutch mass, may have required incubation in a more open environment, where water conservation represented a more critical factor than in a buried clutch. The lower G_H2O calculated for the two megaloolithid eggs is consistent with previous interpretations of nesting mode that are based on site taphonomy and nesting traces. This study indicates that at least some dinosaurs did not fully bury their eggs.

Long bones (femora, humeri) are the most abundant remains of sauropod dinosaurs. Their length is a good proxy for body length and body mass, and their histology is informative about ontogenetic age. Here we provide a comparative assessment of histologic changes in growth series of several sauropod taxa, including diplodocids (Apatosaurus, Diplodocus, indeterminate Diplodocinae from the Tendaguru Beds and from the Morrison Formation), basal macronarians (Camarasaurus, Brachiosaurus, Europasaurus), and titanosaurs (Phuwiangosaurus, Ampelosaurus). A total of 167 long bones, mainly humeri and femora, and 18 limb girdle bones were sampled. Sampling was performed by core drilling at prescribed locations at midshaft, and 13 histologic ontogenetic stages (HOS stages) were recognized. Because growth of all sauropod long bones is quite uniform, with laminar fibrolamellar bone being the dominant tissue, HOS stages could be recognized across taxa, although with minor differences. Histologic ontogenetic stages generally correlate closely with body size and thus provide a means to resolve important issue like the ontogenetic status of questionable specimens. We hypothesize that sexual maturity was attained at HOS-8, well before maximum size was attained, but we did not find sexually differentiated growth trajectories subsequent to HOS-8. On the basis of HOS stages, we detected two morphotypes in the Camarasaurus sample, a small one (type 1) and a larger one (type 2), presumably representing different species or sexual dimorphism.

Sauropod dinosaurs were the largest terrestrial animals and their growth rates remain a subject of debate. By counting growth lines in histologic sections and relating bone length to body mass, it has been estimated that Apatosaurus attained its adult body mass of about 25,000 kg in as little as 15 years, with a maximum growth rate over 5000 kg/yr. This rate exceeds that projected for a precocial bird or eutherian mammal of comparable estimated body mass. An alternative method of estimating limb length and body mass for each growth line, and fitting the resulting age/ mass data to the von Bertalanffy growth equation, yields a revised growth curve suggesting that Apatosaurus adult mass was reached by 70 years with a maximum growth rate of 520 kg/yr. This alternative method for growth rate determination can also be applied to histological studies of other sauropods. At only about half the mass of Apatosaurus, Janenschia took between 20 and 30 years to attain its adult size (over 14,000 kg). This result is supported by independent evidence of estimated bone apposition rates. Despite having an adult body mass greater than Apatosaurus, the titanosaurid Alamosaurus attained a mass over 32,000 kg within 45 years and a maximum growth rate of 1000 kg/yr. Titanosaurids may have been the fastest growing of all sauropods. Even so, sauropod growth rate estimates produced using the von Bertalanffy equation fall between those projected for reptiles and those for precocial birds of equivalent projected body mass. These results are comparable to those found for smaller dinosaurs, and suggest that sauropods grew at rates similar to other dinosaurs in spite of their great size.

The three dimensional structure of vegetation is an important component of ecosystems, yet it is difficult to reconstruct from the fossil record. Forests or woodlands prevailed at mid-latitudes in North America during the early Eocene but tree spacing and canopy structure are uncertain. Here we use stable carbon isotope values (δ¹³C ) in early Eocene mammalian faunas to infer canopy structure. We compare δ¹³C values in two diverse fossil assemblages from the central Bighorn Basin to values predicted for mammals in a variety of open and closed habitats, based on modern floras and faunas. We conclude that these early Eocene faunas occupied an open canopy forest. We also use carbon and oxygen isotopes to infer diet and microhabitat. Three higher level taxa have significantly different mean δ¹³C values, and values are negatively correlated with body mass. The pattern suggests diets high in leaves for larger mammals, and fruit or other non-foliar plant organs for small ones. A preference in the larger mammals for wetter habitats with high water availability to plants may also have contributed to the pattern.