Understanding the relationship among environmental factors, overstory and understory is a key step for the improvement of sustainable forest management. Our aim was to understand how environmental features (topographic factors) and overstory (tree species) composition affect understory (shrub and herb species) assemblage in sub-Mediterranean coppiced woods. The study area lies in the Monti Sibillini National Park (central Italy). In 205 plots (20 × 20 m) we collected topographic features and species cover values; moreover, we defined the Social Behaviour Type (SBT — i.e. species ecological and dynamic features) of each understory species. Data were analysed using Redundancy Analysis and Generalized Linear Modeling. We found that topographic factors shaped percentage cover of different tree species and hence determined forest community type. Topography-related factors were further mediated by the tree layer composition, in filtering understory assemblage, on the basis of species SBT. We found no effect of overstory species diversity on understory species diversity. However, the presence of tree species different from the dominant ones increased understory species richness. This effect was particularly notable in evergreen woods, dominated by Quercus ilex. We conclude that, to improve the management sustainability, coppicing management should be focused on the achievement of the greater tree species diversity.

High species diversity is often accompanied with and supported by a diversified stand structure in species-rich natural forests. However, the relationship between species diversity and stand structural diversity is less examined in species-poor forests. In montane forests on Loess Plateau of north-central China in a semi-arid climate zone, canopy species diversity and vertical structure of 57 broadleaves, conifer and mixed stands, with varying stand ages and site conditions, were randomly sampled. Canopy species diversity was represented by Shannon's index (H'). Stand structural diversity was represented by two indices respectively, i.e. coefficients of variation of diameter measurements at breast height (CVdbh) and Shannon's index of diameter classes (H'dbh). Structural equation models (SEMs) were constructed to explore multiple relationships between stand structural diversity and canopy species diversity, stand age and elevation. Both stand structural diversity indices increased directly with H' and stand age. However, indirect positive effect of stand age via increasing H' was only significant on CV. H'dbh provided positive feedback on H', while effect of stand age was only indirect via increasing structural diversity. Elevation significantly affected coefficients of variation of diameter, which was probably a sampling effect due to narrow distribution of broadleaves-conifer stands in altitudinal range. In conclusion, the results showed that stand structural diversity and canopy species diversity and stand age are closely associated with the species-poor montane forests like these on Loess Plateau of north-central China.

In this study, we investigated plant communities in relation to site-specific morphological properties and sediment structure on gravel bars along the middle Drava River in Slovenia. We sampled 143 plots of 5 × 5 m using species cover-abundance estimates. In addition, we considered the following habitat physical variables: elevation above the water line, texture of the substrate (silt, sand, gravel content) and bar age. Based on TWINSPAN method, we distinguished four vegetation types: (G1) xerophilic and thermophilic ruderal stage; (G2) stage with sparse and herb-rich ruderal vegetation with species of semi-dry grasslands; (G3) initial vegetation stage of frequently disturbed mesotrophic and eutrophic sites and (G4) tall-willow stage. The most important factors determining a bar's vegetation were elevation and gravel content. Our study shows that gravel bars of the middle Drava river system form a suitable habitats for species-rich plant communities. Their diversity is a function of high spatial heterogeneity coupled with the opposing forces of stress and disturbance.

The differences in morpho-anatomical, ecological and biochemical traits of Cyclamen coum subsp. coum, threatened plant listed in CITES (Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna & Flora) have been investigated in the central Black Sea region of Turkey in the context of its distribution at different altitudes. We found that shoot length, bulb width, leaf width and length, number of branches and flowers were significantly different along elevation gradient, whereas length of tubers, number of living and dead leaves, number of nodes, specific leaf area (SLA) and leaf mass area (LMA) values, did not differ significantly, PCA analysis revealed that leaf length and width, the number of branches, soil organic matter content and available potassium concentration and N concentrations of above and belowground parts and reproductive effort (RE3) played significant role in differentiation of the studied populations, while several other studied factor were found not significant. The reproductive effort of individuals from the sea level was higher. We suggest that significant differences in the studied traits may indicate the ecotypic differentiation among populations.

Three types of alpine plant species, Carex montis-everestii, Quercus aquifolioides and Stipa capillacea, along an altitudinal gradient of 3005–5025 m on the Tibetan Plateau, were chosen to test the generality of the hypothesis that foliar carbon isotope composition (δ¹³C) of C₃ plants increases significantly with altitude and to determine climate drivers shaping its altitudinal pattern. Temperature and relative humidity showed significantly negative correlations with altitude; however, precipitation and soil water potential remained unchanged with altitude. Foliar δ¹³C of C. montis-everestii, Q. aquifolioides, S. capillacea alone or combined together did not significantly increase with altitude, which does not support the leading hypothesis of increased foliar δ¹³C with altitude. There was no difference in foliar δ¹³C among all three species. Multi-factor correlation analyses showed that temperature, precipitation and relative humidity alone did not affect foliar δ¹³C of C. montis-everestii and S. capillacea, but conferred significant effects on foliar δ¹³C of Q. aquifolioides.

The present paper attempts to evolve a new model by considering various indicators of different types of land degradation or desertification, namely, water erosion, soil salinity, vegetation degradation, and lowering of ground water table for finding areas with higher rate of degradation. The Runiz basin, located in the southern Iran, has been selected as a study area to assess the hazard of desertification. The thresholds for the severity classes of indicators were established and then the hazard map for each indicator of types of desertification has been prepared in a GIS. The risk classes of different risk maps were calculated on the basis of classification of risk scores derived by cumulative effect of all the attributes of indicators after overlying them in the GIS. It was possible to distinguish the areas under ‘actual risk’ from areas under ‘potential risk’ of desertification types. Also areas under potential risk were classified to subclasses with different probability level to show a statistical picture of risk in future. The final map of risk of desertification was produced by overlaying all four maps of degradation types. Results show that potential risk areas and areas under actual risk are almost equal, indicating further threat of desertification in future in the half of the region. Also severe condition in the half of region shows environmentally bad situation in the study area. It is hoped that this attempt using GIS will be found applicable for other regions of the world.

Magnolia cylindrica Wils. is one of the third most-protected wild plants in China. To describe the size structure and dynamics of its population, field data were obtained from eight newly established sites, using a contiguous grid quadrate method in Jiulong Mountain of East China. The population size structure and spatial distribution pattern were discussed based on a theoretical distribution model and assembling intensity index. The population size structure showed a declining trend because of the lack of seedlings. The number of stump-sprouting, size class III (sapling trees) individuals was large enough to make up for the shortage of small seedlings and the complete regeneration of populations through sprouting. The distributions of M. cylindrica, both seedling populations (Group A) and overall populations (Group B), were mostly clumped. The spatial pattern intensities of the populations at different stages (mainly small trees, middle trees, and big trees) were higher for Group A than those for Group B. The two groups have the same tendency in that the pattern intensity declined from small trees to the larger ones. Group A and Group B differed in spatial pattern: small and middle trees were randomly distributed in seedling populations, but aggregated in overall populations. The populations of M. cylindrica (both group A and B) were characterized by the pattern scale between 16 to 32 m², measured by Greig-Smith and Kershaw methods. These results suggest that sprouting should be seriously considered in population rehabilitation and forest tending management and the area of forest tending management should be close to the maximum intensity.

Long-lived clonal plants provide an optimal place for the natural storage of seeds as a ‘non-soil seed bank’. We tested the hypothesis that the size and species diversity of a non-soil seed bank deposited within the clonal plant Carex cespitosa depends mainly on the plant's size. To verify this hypothesis, an experiment was conducted on an unmown meadow in the Białowieża National Park. The emerging seedlings of different species originating from C. cespitosa tussocks of different size (large and small) were observed under greenhouse conditions for four years. The size of a non-soil seed bank was evaluated based on the number of seedlings. Significant differences in the seedling number were found between large and small sedge tussocks (Mann-Whitney test Z = 3.96, P < 0.001). However, the number of recorded species was independent of tussock size. Both types of tussocks were dominated by meadow, forest and swamp species (in decreasing order). Some of these species are no longer present in the studied area, or their occurrence is limited to small groups at the meadow's edges. A non-soil seed bank within the tussock cores of C. cespitosa may be, similar to a soil seed bank, a tool for studying the changes occurring in plant communities.

The investigations of the effect of different habitat conditions on the composition of the seed rain and seedling pool were conducted in the years 2014 and 2015 in abandoned patches of Molinion caeruleae dominated by small-stature meadow taxa (patch I), tall-growing grasses (patch II), as well as shrubs and trees (patch III). Observations showed that along the successional gradient the seed rain and seedling pool diminishes. The prevalence of perennials and native taxa in the seed rain and seedling pool occurred in all the study sites. Moreover, in the propagule and seedling pools of all the patches hemicryptophytes and meadow taxa prevailed but their number decreased in successional sites. Also, the abundance of ruderal and grassland taxa decreased gradually, at expense of number of forest species. Zoochorous species prevailed in the seed rain and seedling pool of all patches. Number of hydrohorous species decreased in successional patches, while the abundance of species with other dispersal modes were similar. Irrespective of patch character, the species producing propagules with medium size dominated in the seed rain and seedling pools, whereas a significant decrease of number of small-seeded species was noticed only in the seedling pool. Despite the diminishing of the seed rain and seedling pool along the successional gradient, the gap creation might be a very effective way of active protection of Molinion caeruleae meadows. However, the gap colonisation requires permanent monitoring to avoid further spreading of undesired taxa.

Shrikes represent an important group of farmland bird species which inhabit open habitats where they prey on invertebrates and small vertebrates. Like the other farmland birds, shrikes are in the decline across their breeding range. During the 2014 breeding season, we conducted point observations in 470 locations in the Republic of Moldova, recording all the shrike individuals that were seen during 5 minutes. The highest density has been recorded for the red-backed shrike Lanius collurio, (0.489–0.652 breeding pairs ha-1) while for lesser grey shrike Lanius minor the density is ten times lower (0.042–0.076 breeding pairs ha-1). These two shrike species select pasture areas for breeding and avoid artificial surfaces, forests and wetlands. Regarding the geomorphological variables, red-backed shrikes and lesser grey shrikes prefer areas of a low, flat ground and aspects with low exposure to the sun radiation. According to the General Linear Model analyses, the red-backed shrike distribution is significantly influenced by percentage of arable land and orchards, while for lesser grey shrike we did not find any significant influence of environmental variables studied.

Prunus serotina Ehrh. is a rapidly expanding invasive in European temperate forests, threatening native species biodiversity. Three alternative models, ‘the passenger’, ‘the driver’, and ‘the opportunist’ were used to determine the interactions between the invasive species, the native community, and features of the habitat. To assess the relationships between soil properties and species composition of a Scots pine forest invaded by P. serotina, we randomly selected twelve research plots in each of four stands in the south-western part of Poland. We used the phytosociological relevé method and determined selected soil properties (total nitrogen, organic carbon, and pH value) in the organic and humus horizons. Based on redundancy analysis, we determined that selected soil properties explained 38% of the total variation in species composition of the Scots pine forest with P. serotina, indicating that community interactions followed the ‘passenger’ model. At the same time, we found that P. serotina invaded via the ‘driver’ model, since the decrease in soil C:N ratio correlated with black cherry presence, and showed a significant impact on the floristic diversity in the invaded phytocenoses. We conclude that soil parameters seem to facilitate the invasion of P. serotina, and comprise the consequences of this process.