A concept map for taking biodiversity to school is proposed here using a novel approach that combines systematics, evolutionary biology, and the nature of science. The concept map is tied to the recently published next generation science standards (NGSS). The problem of biodiversity is presented as a way to justify the need to take it to school. Biological classification is presented as a hypothesis about order in nature that is based on the evolutionary history of the organisms. Classification is the reference system of the entirety of biology with predictive and explanatory power. Homology is the concept that connects systematics to evolutionary biology. Evolutionary biology explains and systematics reflects the unity and diversity of life.

Scleropodium is a moss genus of six currently recognized species with a native range including western North America, western Europe, the Mediterranean Basin, and Macaronesia. Informed by a recent molecular phylogenetic study of the genus, descriptions, illustrations, range maps, and a key are presented. Notes on morphological characters, ecology, and distribution are provided based on field observations and examination of herbarium specimens. Excluded taxa and synonyms are discussed, including earlier reports from Korea (S. brachyphyllum and S. coreense), Tasmania (S. australe), North America (S. colpophyllum), Europe (Brachythecium appleyardiae) and the Canary Islands (S. touretii var. teneriffae). A lectotype is designated for S. cespitans and a neotype is designated for S. touretii. Two new combinations, Eurhynchium brachyphyllum and Oxyrrhynchium coreense, are proposed. Scleropodium julaceum is reported for the first time from Canada and S. cespitans is reported for the first time from Mexico.

Strong selective pressures imposed by drought-prone habitats have contributed to extensive morphological convergence among the 400 species of cheilanthoid ferns (Pteridaceae). As a result, generic circumscriptions based exclusively on macromorphology often prove to be non-monophyletic. Ongoing molecular phylogenetic analyses are providing the foundation for a revised classification of this challenging group and have begun to clarify its complex evolutionary history. As part of this effort, we generated and analyzed DNA sequence data for three plastid loci (rbcL, atpA, and the intergenic spacer trnG-trnR) for the myriopterid clade, one of the largest monophyletic groups of cheilanthoid ferns. This lineage encompasses 47 primarily North and Central American taxa previously included in Cheilanthes but now placed in the recircumscribed genus Myriopteris. Here, we infer a phylogeny for the group and examine key morphological characters across this phylogeny. We also include a brief discussion of the three well-supported Myriopteris subclades, along with a review of reproductive mode and known ploidy levels for members of this early diverging lineage of cheilanthoid ferns.

A new genus and species of Lauraceae, Microlaurus perigynus gen. et sp. nov. is described based on fossil charcoalified flower buds recovered from the Kamikitaba assemblage (early Coniacian, Late Cretaceous; ca. 89 million years before present (myr BP)) in the Ashizawa Formation (Asamigawa Member) of the Futaba Group in northeastern Japan. Analysis of the internal structure of the fossil buds using synchrotron-radiation X-ray microtomography (SRXTM) at the 2-BM-B beamline of the Advanced Photon Source (APS), Argonne National Laboratory, shows that the flowers are small, pedicellate, bisexual, trimerous, and actinomorphic, with small outer tepals, larger inner tepals, three whorls of stamens, an innermost androecial whorl composed of staminodia, and a unicarpellate gynoecium containing a single ovule. Microlaurus perigynus is assigned to the Lauraceae based on the regular trimerous floral organization and other details of floral structure, but it is distinguished from most previously described lauraceous fossil flowers by the poorly differentiated filament and anther in the stamens of the third whorl and the marked size difference between the small outer tepals and the large inner tepals. Also unusual are the paired glandular appendages that appear to be associated with the first (outermost) whorl of stamens, rather than the stamens of the third whorl, although the precise position is not fully clear. The same feature occurs in Hernandiaceae, the sister group of Lauraceae, as well as in Powhatania connata, an earlier but fragmentary lauralean fossil flower from the Early to Middle Albian of Virginia. Microlaurus perigynus adds to the floral diversity of Lauraceae known from the Late Cretaceous, and its presence in the Kamikitaba assemblage from Japan underlines the broad geographic distribution and floristic significance of lauraceous plants during the Late Cretaceous.

Angraecum, the largest genus of the angraecoid orchids, has long been regarded as a natural group possessing a common overall floral morphology, although recent molecular studies have called into question its monophyly. No recent taxonomic revision is available for the genus or its sections, and previous studies (whether based on morphology or DNA sequences) have suffered from a paucity of material from continental Africa. An earlier study suggested that the section Pectinaria was polyphyletic, with one clade, containing the type species, centered in Madagascar and the other in continental Africa. Our recent morphometric and molecular study confirmed the polyphyly of this section, clarified the circumscription of its continental African species, and assessed their monophyly. Here we present a comprehensive taxonomic revision of the five continental African members of Angraecum section Pectinaria, including an identification key, distribution maps, and an assessment of their conservation status (two are threatened, one could become threatened in the near future, and two do not meet the criteria for threatened status). Species richness is highest in Atlantic Central Africa, and A. gabonense is reported for the first time from Equatorial Guinea. Lectotypifications are made for A. pungens, A. subulatum and its synonym, A. canaliculatum.

Descriptions, brief taxonomic notes, and data on the ecology of the Colombian Myrosmodes species as well as a key for determination of all species known from the northern Andes are provided. The descriptions are complemented by illustrations and maps of their distributions.

A synopsis of the orchid genus Psilochilus in Colombia is presented. Six national representatives are placed within a key to the identification of all known species of the genus. A morphological description and illustration of each species are presented. Information about their geographical range and vertical distribution is provided, together with brief notes on their taxonomic affinities. P. macrophyllus is lectotypified.

Three series, Prismaticae, Tripetalae, and Laevigatae, in Iris subgenus Limniris comprise a clade of nine species with an affinity for wetland environments. Prior work has failed to resolve phylogenetic relationships among these taxa. We used maximum likelihood and Bayesian inference methods to analyze plastid and nuclear ribosomal ITS sequence data to infer a robust phylogeny for this circumboreal group. Our analyses recovered clades that do not reflect current series circumscriptions and show that species from Tripetalae and Laevigatae comprise one clade. Species relationships also do not reflect geographic proximity, as Asian and North American species do not assort into regional clades. This finding suggests that multiple exchanges between Asia and North America are required to explain current distributions and refutes the hypothesis that Asian taxa are the earliest diverging lineage within the clade.

Based on morphological evidence, we resurrect the genus Beauverdia to include species of Ipheion section Hirtellum. All species now included in Beauverdia were also treated as part of Ipheion, Nothoscordum, or Tristagma. As here circumscribed, Beauverdia (Amaryllidaceae, Allioideae, Gilliesieae) is a South American genus that is found in Argentina, southern Brazil, and Uruguay. Two new combinations, Beauverdia dyalistemon (Guagl.) Sassone & Guagl., comb. nov. and Beaverdia hirtella var. lorentzii (Herter) Sassone & Guagl., comb. nov. are made, as well as descriptions, keys to related genera and species, lectotypes, and distribution maps.

The East and Southeast Asian genera Ophiopogon, Liriope, and Peliosanthes are classified in the tribe Ophiopogoneae (Asparagaceae). Phylogenetic relationships of this group were explored using maximum parsimony, Bayesian and maximum likelihood analyses of nuclear ITS and plastid psbA-trnH, matK, rbcL, and trnL-trnF sequences. These analyses supported the monophyly of Ophiopogon, Liriope, and Peliosanthes within the Ophiopogoneae, although tree topologies based on nuclear and chloroplast DNA differed in the placement of many taxa. Incongruence between these two datasets may be a result of hybridization and introgression. Our results reveal that Ophiopogon consists of two major lineages, which we recognize at the sectional level: O. lancangensis, O. multiflorus, O. yunnanensis, O. reversus, O. longibracteatus (sect. Ophiopogon), and O. tsaii (sect. Peliosanthoides).

A new species of Nicipe from the Little Karoo in South Africa is here described. Nicipe rosulata sp. nov. is characterized by its (3-)5-8 short and broad, somewhat leathery leaves disposed in a basal rosette, its narrowly ovate, acute-apiculate capsules, and its long papillate-echinulate seeds. This species is at first sight related to Nicipe britteniae and Ornithogalum lithopsoides based on their short leaves with ciliate to fimbriate margins, but it differs in floral and vegetative characters that clearly support its recognition as a distinct species. Nicipe britteniae differs from N. rosulata by the hard, distichous, ensiform, conduplicate, and densely fimbriate leaves and the rugose seeds. Ornithogalum lithopsoides clearly differs by the more numerous and much thinner leaves, and the rugose seeds, among other characters. Here we provide a detailed morphological description for Nicipe rosulata, including ecological and chorological data, and discuss relationships with its close allies. Finally, the recently described Ornithogalum lithopsoides, also from the Little Karoo, clearly belongs to Nicipe based on the leathery rosulate leaves all arising nearly at the same level, the relatively small flowers, the tepals with a dark longitudinal band mostly visible on the abaxial side, and the small capsules and seeds. This new combination in the latter genus is also presented here.

Vriesea is a large genus comprising several groups of species with controversial limits. The taxonomic revision of small monophyletic groups has been an important approach to improve our understanding of the taxonomy of the genus. After the taxonomic revision of the monophyletic group belonging to Vriesea sect. Xiphion, comprised of species with simple inflorescences, flowers patent during anthesis and not secund, and decurrent floral bract bases, this paper describes three species as new: Vriesea carmenae, Vriesea gelatinosa, and Vriesea zildae; and proposes one synonym. The species occur mainly in the Brazilian Atlantic Forest and Cerrado domains, and are morphologically similar to V. bituminosa and V. wawranea.

In the tribe Andropogoneae, morphological variation is remarkable, mainly in the inflorescence on the pair of spikelets which are the core elements of the inflorescence. The genus Andropogon includes the Andropogon lateralis complex, which is distributed primarily in South and Central America, comprising approximately twelve taxa and inter-specific hybrids. The aim of this study was to assess morphological variation in the A. lateralis complex through morphometric analyses of specimens from natural populations. For this purpose, univariate ANOVA, as well as principal component analysis and discriminant analysis of 19 morphological variables of synflorescences were performed, revealing differences between species and interspecific hybrids. The selected diagnostic traits of species and hybrids based on quantitative characters of the synflorescences provided a valuable tool for taxonomic studies in the genus. The results obtained made it possible to generate the first identification key that includes both species and hybrids of the A. lateralis complex for South America.

The genus Nassella, as currently circumscribed, includes 116–117 American species. It is characterized by florets with a strongly convolute lemma, a conspicuous or inconspicuous crown, and a short palea. Using 53 species of Nassella and 22 outgroup species we conducted phylogenetic analyses to test the monophyly of Nassella and relationships among species. Two plastid (trnT-trnL and rpl32-trnL) and two nuclear ribosomal (ITS and ETS) regions and morphology were used. Our DNA data alone and combined with morphology showed Nassella to be paraphyletic with respect to a monophyletic Amelichloa. Two main clades were recovered: one with species of Nassella distributed in regions of high elevation from Mexico to northwestern Argentina and one composed of the remaining species of Nassella and those of Amelichloa. The latter is mainly concentrated in southern South America in a variety of habitats with generally lower elevation than the other clade. The monophyly of the close relative of Nassella, the South American genus Jarava s. s., was rejected. None of the groups previously circumscribed as subgenera of Stipa, that are now considered to be composed of species in Nassella, were recovered as monophyletic. The close phylogenetic relationship of Nassella and Amelichloa is supported by only one morphological synapomorphy: the lemma margins flat and strongly overlapping.

Chusquea is a diverse genus of American woody bamboos, accounting for almost half of the woody bamboo species in the Neotropics. Previous analyses of molecular data have recovered four major lineages within Chusquea, but morphological synapomorphies have been identified only for subgenus Rettbergia. This study estimates a chloroplast phylogeny of Chusquea with a focus on relationships within the large and intractable Euchusquea clade. Phylogenetic analyses were conducted on 40% of the described species in Chusquea, with data from five chloroplast regions and a preliminary survey of the nuclear internal transcribed spacer complex. Several results from previous studies were corroborated, including the presence of two clades formerly comprising the genus Neurolepis and monophyly of subgenus Rettbergia. The clades formerly in Neurolepis are named as Chusquea subgenus Platonia and Chusquea subgenus Magnifoliae based on molecular support and potential morphological synapomorphies. We recovered two strongly supported and five weakly supported clades within Euchusquea, but relationships among these lineages were not resolved and species composition of the clades conflicts strongly with current taxonomic groupings based on morphology. Low resolution of the chloroplast phylogeny estimation, low variability in nuclear data, character conflict, and geographical distribution of chloroplast lineages all suggest a recent radiation of the Euchusquea clade. Given the present weak molecular support for relationships within Euchusquea and the lack of synapomorphic morphological characters to define clades, we recommend the use of the current morphology-based taxonomy as a practical means of assessing and describing diversity in the Euchusquea clade.

During a survey of the species of Poaceae in Serra do Ouro Branco in the southern Espinhaço Range, State of Minas Gerais, Brazil, a new species of Isachne (I. hirtiglumis) was found and is described here. This new species differs from the other three species of the genus occurring in Brazil mainly by the hirsute indument of the glumes. Isachne hirtiglumis grows in swamps and wet areas associated with gallery forests within the campos rupestres. Besides the description and illustrations, an identification key for the species of Isachne, confirmed for Brazil to date is provided and nomenclatural problems are discussed.

A revision of a closely allied and poorly studied group of Mexican Heuchera species is presented. This work has necessitated several taxonomic and nomenclatural actions, namely: the recognition of the name H. longipetala as referring to the Mexican plant usually known as H. hemsleyana; the reduction of the latter to synonymy; the description of two new species, H. rosendahlii and H. wellsiae, having such divergent morphology as to warrant a new subsection, subsection Rosendahliae; the transfer of H. mexicana to subsect. Hemsleyanae; the description of a new variety for H. mexicana (H. mexicana var. potosiensis) and for H. longipetala (H. longipetala var. nudicaulis); the reduction of H. orizabensis to a variety of H. longipetala (H. longipetala var. orizabensis) and of H. amoena to a synonym of H. mexicana; and the lectotypification of the names H. orizabensis and H. hemsleyana. Provided are descriptions, notes on habitat and phenology, range maps, line drawings, and full specimen citations for all taxa treated, as well as a taxonomic key for all known species of Heuchera in Mexico, new chromosome counts for two taxa, and a morphological cladistic analysis of section Rhodoheuchera.

Here we describe the morphological variability, chromosome number, and chromosome size in Mimosa diversipila. This species comprises two varieties, which are distinguished by the indumentum. However, this character is insufficient for circumscription of these infraspecific taxa. Using multivariate techniques, we found that quantitative characters were useful for identification of the varieties, which also have a different geographic distribution. Cytogenetic studies revealed that these taxa form a polyploid complex and that the polyploidy may contribute to the morphological variability observed.

An account of the 11 species of Mucuna (one described as new to science: Mucuna pseudoelliptica) occurring in Peru is provided. Information about types and synonyms are presented, as well as the conservation status of, and a distribution map for, each species. A key to identify the Peruvian species of Mucuna is also presented.

A new species of Ficus sect. Pharmacosycea, confined to the coastal plains of northwestern Ecuador, is here described and illustrated as Ficus carvajalii Pederneiras, Pelissari and Romaniuc. It is characterized mainly by the crateriform apex of the siconium, length of stipule and peduncle, and shows similarities with F. apollinaris and F. maxima. Discussions on taxonomy, geographic distribution, and conservation status are provided, as well as an identification key to the species of the subsect. Petenensis in Ecuador.

During a taxonomic revision of Pourouma (Urticaceae), a new species was discovered. Pourouma amacayacuensis, endemic to the municipality of Leticia, Amazonas, Colombia is here described and illustrated. This species is morphologically similar to P. floccosa, but is distinguished by foliar lamina with apex acute to acuminate, adaxial surface scabrous, abaxial surface of stipules with indument yellowish, hirsute, and fruiting perianth with indument brown-yellowish, velutinous.

We describe a new species, Miconia cineana (Melastomataceae: Miconieae), from the Massif de la Hotte, Haiti. Although this species has been known from sterile collections since the early 1980s, its phylogenetic position was unknown, although it was presumed to be closely related to species of Pachyanthus s. l. The phylogenetic reconstruction presented here, based on a recent collection of the species, clearly places M. cineana in a clade comprised of Cuban species of the polyphyletic genera Tetrazygia s. l. and Pachyanthus s. l. Thus, M. cineana represents the sole Hispaniolan member of an otherwise Cuban clade, and an uncommon biogeographic pattern in melastomes. Miconia cineana, although described here from sterile specimens, is easily distinguished from the other species of this clade using vegetative morphology, as well as phylogenetic placement. This study highlights the utility of molecular data when coupled with morphology, allowing for the discovery of an unrecognized species in a region of high diversity and endemism, i.e. the Massif de la Hotte.

Pouteria. s. s. (Chrysophylloideae) includes ca. 200 species, representing the largest genus of Sapotaceae. In Brazil, 120 species are recorded in Amazonia and in the Atlantic Rainforest where the genus is centered. This paper presents a taxonomic survey of the 34 species of Pouteria s. s. from the northern portion of the Atlantic Rainforest of Brazil, and includes an identification key, nomenclatural updates, new synonyms, descriptions, and detailed information about geographic distribution and phenology for all taxa, and illustrations. Species of Pouteria are mainly separated based on leaf venation, trichome type, stamen and staminode morphology, and fruit traits. Out of the 34 species recognized, 18 are endemic to the Atlantic Rainforest of Brazil, 10 are disjunctly distributed with Amazonia, and six are widespread in South America. According to the IUCN red list criteria, 20 of the 34 species treated here are threatened; of these, 10 are vulnerable, seven are endangered, and three are critically endangered.

The taxonomic use of infraspecific ranks (subspecies, variety, subvariety, form, and subform), and the formal recognition of interspecific hybrid taxa, is permitted by the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants. However, considerable confusion regarding the biological and systematic merits is caused by current practice in the use of infraspecific ranks, which obscures the meaningful variability on which natural selection operates, and by the formal recognition of those interspecific hybrids that lack the potential for inter-lineage gene flow. These issues also may have pragmatic and legal consequences, especially regarding the legal delimitation and management of threatened and endangered species. A detailed comparison of three contemporary floras highlights the degree to which infraspecific and interspecific variation are treated inconsistently. An in-depth analysis of taxonomy of the North American flowering plant genus Sarracenia (Sarraceniaceae) provides an ideal case study illustrating the confusion that can arise from inconsistent and apparently arbitrary designation of infraspecific ranks and hybrid taxa. To alleviate these problems, we propose the abandonment of infraspecific ranks of “variety” and “form,” and discourage naming of sterile interspecific hybrids except for use in the horticultural or agronomic trade. Our recommendations for taxonomic practice are in accord with the objectives proposed in the Systematics Agenda 2000, Systematics Agenda 2020, and the Global Strategy for Plant Conservation.

The Mirandea clade (Acanthaceae) is part of the Tetramerium lineage (Acanthaceae: Justicieae). Traditionally, macromorphological floral traits such as floral form and color have guided taxonomy in the Tetramerium lineage but earlier results on this group indicate that these traits are highly homoplastic. The present study includes all described species and multiple samples of Hoverdenia, Mirandea, and Yeatesia to fully delimit the Mirandea clade, test monophyly of species, and determine relationships among them using DNA sequence data from five regions (nuclear: nrITS and ncpGS; cp: trnS—G, ndhF—trnL_(UAG), and trnT-L). The Mirandea clade is here shown to include seven species currently placed in four genera: Mirandea, Hoverdenia, Yeatesia, and Justicia. The lineage is edaphically and geographically cohesive, occurring along the Sierra Madre Oriental in Mexico and southern Texas in xeric habitats, except for one species that inhabits a broad geographical region of the southeastern U. S. A. in mesic habitats. We present micromorphological data from seeds and pollen and discuss the evolution of these traits, as well as other floral traits. These results support the heterodox idea that micromorphological traits of seed testa and pollen exine, morphologies that are not found among other clades of the Tetramerium lineage, are phylogenetically informative among members of the Mirandea clade whereas floral traits are not. Plants in this clade exhibit remarkable interspecific variation in both floral form and color, suggesting divergent evolution in conjunction with pollination syndrome. Taxonomic implications of these results are discussed.

Based on morphological and molecular data, three new species of the Old World Didymocarpoid Gesneriaceae, Petrocodon laxicymosus, P. longgangensis, and P. pseudocoriaceifolius, are described and illustrated from Guangxi, China. The three new species are most similar to P. coriaceifolius, differing by their texture, size, and shape of leaves, size and pubescence of inflorescence and corolla, anther shape, and pistil length. Additionally, Primulina guangxiensis, one of two species included in Primulina before its recent recircumscription, was unexpectedly found to be nested within Petrocodon in our ongoing phylogenetic analyses, prompting us to make the new combination Petrocodon guangxiensis. The four species of Petrocodon treated here are all rare, known only from a single or a few localities of limestone karsts in Guangxi.

In this paper we describe and illustrate Sinningia ramboi (Gesneriaceae), a new species occurring on rocky outcrops in the upper parts of the canyons cutting the plateau of high altitude grasslands in Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil. This new species bears some similarity to S. polyantha, S. nivalis, and S. douglasii, but is readily distinguished by opposite leaves and a much shorter main axis of the inflorescence. Ecological and distributional data, as well as a key to distinguish these related species, are also presented.

Five species and one hybrid of Baccharis with alate stems are recognized in the northern Andes between Colombia and central Peru, of which three species are endemic. A new species, B. woytkowskii, is described from northern Peru. Two species are restricted to northern Peru, and all northern Andean species occur there. Three species also occur in Ecuador and a single species in Colombia. Baccharis subbimera is neotypified and the species endemic to the northern Andes are described and illustrated. Morphological delimitation of species is discussed, and a determination key is provided.

Lychnophora rupestris and Lychnophora nanuzae are two new endemic species from quartzitic, rocky-field vegetation in Brazil. These new species are described and illustrated, and their affinities discussed. They are similar to L. granmogolensis, suggesting the definition of a species complex. The L. granmogolensis species complex can be recognized by imbricate leaves, ericoid, revolute margins, pungent apex with mucron, 1–3 flowers per capitulum, and outer pappus series free or partially fused. Lychnophora granmogolensis is a poorly known species from the Diamantina plateau in northern Minas Gerais State, and Chapada Diamantina (Bahia) in the Espinhaço Mountain Range. To clarify the application of the name L. granmogolensis, that species is also described and illustrated, and affinities are discussed.

Richterago is a Brazilian genus that has been studied by the authors over the past twenty years. The genus was recircumscribed based on Lessing's concept, including species that are either rosette herbs (hemicryptophytes or geophytes) or subshrubs (with erect, woody, unbranched stems), bearing radiate and heterogamous or discoid and homogamous heads, and a uniseriate pappus with 25–43 bristles of equal lengths. Current molecular phylogenetic studies corroborate Richterago as monophyletic within the tribe Gochnatieae. The main goal of this paper is to present a taxonomic revision of Richterago providing access to updated and detailed information of all species. Richterago is comprised of 16 species, of which nine are endemic to the Espinhaço Range of the mountains in Minas Gerais (R. angustifolia, R. arenaria, R. caulescens, R. conduplicata, R. elegans, R. lanata, R. polymorpha, R. polyphylla, and R. suffrutescens). Richterago radiata is the most widely distributed species, occurring in Goiás, Distrito Federal, Minas Gerais, São Paulo, and Paraná states. Most of the species (14) should be considered endangered and in need of protection based on the criteria of IUCN.

Packera serpenticola (Asteraceae; Senecioneae), an interesting arachnoid pubescent species restricted to dunite derived soils (olivine and serpentine) in Clay County, North Carolina, is described as new. The plants most closely resemble Packera aurea, a common species of the Appalachian region, but are diminutive in all parts, conspicuously arachnoid pubescent, especially when young, and dull gray in appearance. In addition to phenotypic differences, our molecular analysis with limited samples show that the two species have marked divergence at one nuclear gene (waxy) and one chloroplast intergenic spacer (psbA-trnH). Packera aurea is also absent on dunite.