Study Area

Our study sites were located in Simanjiro district, Northern Tanzania (3° 33′ 42.55″ S and 36° 58′ 44.22″ E) in three villages; Loiborsiret, Narakauo and Kimotorok (Figure 1). The population of the district, according to the Tanzania National Census of 2012, was 178,693 and that of Loiborsiret ward is 13,569 (National Bureau of Statistics, 2017). The area has a bimodal rainfall averaging 650 mm per annum, with a short rainy season between November and January and long rainy season between March and May (Woodhouse & McCabe, 2018, Miller et al., 2014). The primary residents of the district are Maasai pastoralists, and livestock keeping is the most dominant livelihood form, followed by crop cultivation as the majority of Maasai have become sedentary (Msoffe et al., 2011). Crops cultivated include maize (Zea mays), mainly for subsistence, hyacinth beans (Dolichos lablab) and the cash crop sesame (Sesame indicum). Vegetation is dominated by arid scrubland and Acacia - Commiphora woodland in combination with scattered open grasslands and seasonal swamps (Nnko et al., 2017). Simanjiro plains support the coexistence between humans, livestock and wild animals, and its fertile pastures offer a critical grazing and calving area for wildebeest Connochaetes taurinus and zebra Equus quagga during the wet season (Woodhouse & McCabe, 2018). Grazing management in the plains rotates between wet and dry season grazing areas albeit most Maasai are now settled in permanent villages, reducing movement within village lands and across village boundaries (Woodhouse & McCabe, 2018). Grazing resources in Simanjiro are still a common property; however, in most villages, individuals are recently being allocated private holdings (McCabe et al., 2010). Maasai use traditional enclosures (Alalili), which are managed grazing areas that allow access only to young or sick goats, sheep, and cattle. The maximum livestock number allowed in these enclosures should not exceed thirty animals per boma (Personal communication). The use of Alalili helps recovery of rangeland vegetation and preventing range degradation, a practice that might promote insect pollinators conservation.

Figure 1.

Map of the Three Study Sites in Loiborsiret Ward, Simanjiro District, Showing the Location of 181 Interviews, the Location of Our Sample Sites in Seasonal Enclosures, Called Alalili, and on Wet and Dry Season Open Rangelands During Assessments in Loiborsiret, Narakauo and Kimotorok Villages in 2019.

Data Collection

Data Processing and Analysis

We analyzed qualitative data using the triangulation method and grouped open ended responses according to themes (Chisanga et al., 2019). Household size was categorized as small (1–5), medium (6–10), moderately large (11–15), large (16–20) and extremely large (above 20). Source of pollinator knowledge was categorized as coming from extension officers, friends and relatives, and media (radio and television). Pollinator benefits were categorized into income, food production, and environmental. Pollinator conservation strategy was categorized as avoiding forest fires, practicing environmental protection, beehive sitting. Quantitative information obtained from structured questionnaire were coded and analyzed using statistical package IBM SPSS Statistic version 20.0 (Sarper et al., 2009). Normality and equality of variance were tested using the Shapiro-Wilk test at α = 0.05. Most of our analysis were based on non-parametric tests due to non-normal distribution of variables. Chi-square (χ2) frequency test was used to explore differences between those who could correctly identify each pollinator to those who could not for the six main pollinator species. Chi-square (χ2) test was also used to determine the relationship between occupation (pastoralists and agro-pastoralists) versus dependent variables including insect species identification and pollinator benefits on livelihoods. We derived an index on pollinator identification scores and grouped responses as Low (less than 50), medium (50–69) and high (70 and above) (Tarakini et al., 2020). We used Logistic regression to determine factors influencing pollinator identification scores where age, gender, education level, and occupation formed our independent variables. Bivariate correlation analysis was performed to determine if participation in beekeeping was influenced by socio-economic factors like gender, education level, age and occupation. We compared bee visitation observations in the field across alalili, wet and dry season grazing areas using one-way ANOVA with the number of insect visitors as a response variable.

Ethics Consideration

The Tanzania Commission for Science and Technology (COSTECH) granted the permit to conduct this study through the Tanzania Wildlife Research Institute (TAWIRI). We later presented the permit to respective district, ward and village leaders. Before interviews, we obtained the verbal consent of all respondents to ensure their willing participation. All respondents’ names are anonymous to maintain confidentiality.

Maasai Knowledge on Bee Favourite Plants

As Maasai are a traditionally nomadic tribe, respondents revealed satisfactory local knowledge on bee fodder plant species. Commiphora africana was cited by 94 respondents as the leading favourite plant for bees, followed by Acacia mellifera (90) and Albizia anthelmintica (85) (Figure 3). We found that most (66%) of the mentioned pollinator plant species were trees, while the contribution of shrubs (34%) and herbs (0%) in supporting pollinators was less recognized among the interviewed Maasai. However, in our field observations we recorded several shrubs, herbs, and grasses that served as an equally important bee fodder plant (Supplementary Tables S2 and S3; Figure 4). Aspilia mossambiensis, Justica debile and Acacia tortilis (tree) were the leading plant species from our field observations, with a total of 268, 201 and 150 visitations, respectively (Supplementary Table S3).

Figure 3.

Plants Most Favored by Bees According to Questionnaire Surveys With 181 Respondents and Field Observations Across the Three Main Study Sites, i.e., Alalili Enclosures, Wet and Dry Season Grazing Sites, in Simanjiro During 2019.

Figure 4.

Honeybee Visitation on Herbaceous Plants, Aspilia sp. and Solanum sp. in Simanjiro Rangelands During Wet Season Data Collection (Photo by Faith Mpondo, Field Survey, 2019).

We did not find any significant correlation between plants mentioned by respondents and field observations (Pearson’s R = −.093, p = .643). We also found that alalili enclosures contained more pollinator visitors compared to both rainy season and dry season rangelands, however the difference was not significant (F = 0.617, df= 2, p = .551).

Linkage Between Pollinators and Grazing Lands

Surprisingly, only eight respondents (4%) agreed on the importance of pollinators to rangeland wellbeing. Further, 34 (19%) did not see any relevance of pollinators to rangelands while the majority (77%) did not know. In contrast, 69% of respondents perceived that rangelands and alalili are important to pollinators as they offer essential habitat, while 16% could not see any importance of grazing areas for insect pollinators. Generally, Maasai perceived that pollinators need alalili and other grazing lands more than the rangelands need pollinators. Significantly more agro-pastoralists compared to pastoralists perceived rangelands to be important for pollinators as they offer essential habitat (χ² = 9.889, df = 3, p = .020).

Socio-Economic Importance of Pollinators to Maasai Community

For most respondents (93%), income was the most essential pollinator benefit, which did not differ between agro-pastoralists and pastoralists (χ² = 2.032, df = 2, p = .362). The majority (90%) of respondents had seen pollinators visiting crops and other plants in the area, an observation that did not differ significantly between pastoralists and agro-pastoralists (χ² = 2.794, df = 2, p = .247). Most respondents (61%) participated in beekeeping for income addition, while the remaining 39% were non-beekeepers. More Maasai women (89%) were beekeepers compared to men (39%; χ² = 46.962, df= 1, p ≤ .0001). Maasai participation in beekeeping was positively influenced by education level and occupation, negatively by gender (Table 1). Beekeepers earned an income from honey, which ranged from 36 to 431 USD annually.

Table 1.

Correlation Statistics to Describe Whether Participation in Beekeeping Is Determined by Socio-Economic Characteristics Such as Gender, Age, Education or Occupation (n = 111).

Most non-beekeepers (62%) claimed that keeping bees is an activity for the poor only, while others (24%) claimed that it is a woman’s job. The remaining 14% reported that they also wished to start beekeeping if they could be supported with modern equipment.

Pollinator Conservation and Trend in the Area

Most respondents, i.e., 130 (72%), claimed that insect pollinator numbers have recently declined in the area while 21% reported an increasing trend and 4% a constant pattern. Climate change, i.e., reduced rainfall, prolonged drought, and increasing agricultural activities, was reported as leading cause for the decline of insect pollinators in the area (Figure 5). Bee migration, i.e., absconding a hive due to disturbances, and swarming (a natural phenomenon) was mentioned by a few respondents as a reason for decline. Most, i.e., 165 (91%) of respondents reported that they were not aware of any strategies to ensure pollinator conservation in rangelands. In comparison, very few respondents reported potential scenarios that might promote the conservation of pollinators in rangelands. The strategy mentioned by only few (9%) respondents included avoiding forest fires, practicing environmental protection and beehive sitting i.e. establishment of an apiary.

Figure 5.

Factors for a Potential Decline in Pollinators in Simanjiro From the Survey in Loiborsiret, Narakauo and Kimotorok Villages in 2019 as Reported by 181 Respondents. The bars represent the frequency a cause was mentioned whereby multiple responses were possible.

Maasai Knowledge and Recognition of Common Pollinators

Our finding that all interviewed respondents were able to identify honey bees (Apis mellifera) correctly, compared to other insect groups, is similar to Kasina et al. (2009) from a survey in Kakamega district, Kenya. In the Amhara region, Ethiopia, also more than half of the respondents were not aware of other insect pollinators than honeybees, Apis mellifera (Misganaw, 2017), as was the case in West Bengal, India (Bhattacharyya et al., 2017) and Zvimba district, Zimbabwe (Tarakini et al., 2020). In general, small bees are less likely to be identified, even by experienced people (Smith et al., 2017), which we also saw in our study, as few Maasai identified solitary bees, Lasioglossum of subgenus Ipomalictus. Our finding implies that the conservation of other pollinator groups apart from honey bees in the areas is at jeopardy, for instance even Syriphidae was least identified by our respondents even though dipterans are the second dominant pollinator group after hymenoptera and available at large numbers in the area. However, the knowledge articulated by our respondents on pollinator species was better than that of other farming communities (e.g., Elisante et al., 2019), where some respondents were not able to identify even a honey bee. The knowledge in our study villages is likely linked to sensitization by Tanzania People and Wildlife (TPW), an NGO working in the area promoting beekeeping. Knowledge of pollinators can vary depending on location and efforts of authorities and other stakeholders to enhance community awareness on pollinators (Smith et al., 2017). Especially fathers and grandparents formed an essential source of knowledge among the interviewed respondents in our study, which is in line with (Angassa & Oba, 2008).

Maasai Knowledge on Plants Favored by Pollinators

Our respondents mentioned plant species mostly favored by bees as Commiphora africana, Acacia mellifera and Albizia anthelmintica, species that were available both within alalili enclosures and open grazing areas. Our results are similar to those reported from Amhara region, Ethiopia, and Mubi region, Nigeria, where the majority of respondents were able to list plants visited by honeybees during the flowering season (Abdullahi et al., 2011; Misganaw, 2017). Maasai are quite knowledgeable on plant species as they use them for medicinal purposes for themselves and livestock (Nankaya et al., 2020). (Woodhouse & McCabe, 2018), reported Simanjiro plains as the richest rangelands in terms of biodiversity of both flora and fauna which is in line with our findings where most bee plants recorded in grazing and forest reserve by (Abdullahi et al., 2011); are also found in Simanjiro. Hence, the high diversity of bee fodder plants in Simanjiro rangelands highlights the potential of beekeeping in addition to livestock keeping as income generation. As reported by (Greenleaf et al., 2007), forage resources for honey bees are an essential consideration for beekeepers and overuse or destruction of resources should be avoided (Havstad et al., 2007).

Perceived Pollinator Role for Rangelands

Most respondents in our study were not aware that pollinators have any importance in their rangelands and enclosures (alalili) wellbeing. This finding suggests that pollinator species residing within Simanjiro rangelands might face minimum conservation attention from local Maasai pastoralists. According to (Kearns et al., 1998), pollinators are keystone species in most terrestrial ecosystems, including rangelands. Solitary bees (Halictidae) have been reported to collect pollen from temperate grass species, which promote a better seed set compared to only wind pollinated grasses (Harmon et al., 2011). Our results that Maasai do not relate rangeland health to pollinator presence are in line with findings by (Misganaw, 2017), whereby more than half of the respondents stated that they did not know the role of bees and other insects when they visit crops indicating limited knowledge of pollination. Additionally, crops grown by our respondents in Simanjiro, including sesame (Stein et al., 2018), and beans have been reported to benefit from pollinators (Elisante et al., 2020). A study by (Stein et al., 2017) in Burkina Faso, West Africa revealed an increased production in sesame yield by 62% compared to plants that had been excluded from pollinators. Our findings imply the need of disseminating pollination knowledge among pastoral communities so that they can acquire multiple benefits from pollination for livestock forage and increased crop production.

Pollinator Role in Livelihood Diversification and Gender Participation

Livelihood diversification involves participation in more than a single source of income to reduce risks (Baird & Hartter, 2017), particularly in times of climate change (McCabe et al., 2010). Many Maasai have diversified their income through off-farm payment, agriculture and other small-scale economic activities into their traditional pastoralist livelihoods (McCabe et al., 2010; Woodhouse & McCabe, 2018), which agrees with our findings. Beekeeping plays a vital role in improving biodiversity conservation, socio-economic development, food security and poverty reduction in many parts of the world and is an environmentally friendly economic activity for income addition (Abdullahi et al., 2011; Austin et al., 2020). Our observed involvement of more women as compared to men in beekeeping is mainly due to the support by TPW, albeit men were involved in some activities such as hive sitting, monitoring, honey harvesting, processing and finally marketing. The majority of Maasai men saw beekeeping as income generation for poor households only, with very few or no cattle possession, a fact that has also been reported by (Lyver et al., 2014). This perception regarding beekeeping is mostly limited to Maasai pastoralists, as in most rural areas both men and women participate in beekeeping for their livelihood improvement (Nyunza, 2018), regardless beekeeping being stereotyped as a male activity in some culture (Austin et al., 2020). Our findings highlight the need for more education on beekeeping benefits among Maasai men inorder to promote their participation as beekeeping can be practiced alongside livestock keeping.

The Decline in Pollinators and Conservation Strategies in Maasai Plains

The global decline of both managed and wild pollinators is a primary concern in conservation (Black et al., 2011; Potts et al., 2010). Most of our respondents were also aware of a declining trend in pollinators and the underlying causes, which were also highlighted by other researchers in various agricultural and natural ecosystems (Marques et al., 2017; Misganaw, 2017; Potts et al., 2010; Tarakini et al., 2020). In Simanjiro plains, land clearance is at an unprecedented scale, and large portions of rangelands are cleared for small and large-scale cultivation (Msoffe et al., 2011). Most of our respondents were not aware that this impacts pollinators, nor of pollinator conservation strategies that could stop the decline. This is similar to findings with (Winfree, 2010) who found bee abundance and species richness to be negatively affected by habitat fragmentation. As most Maasai are currently agro-pastoralists, harnessing pollinator benefits like pest control from Coccinellidae beetles (Mkenda et al., 2020) and pollination to boost crop yields will contribute towards conservation as has been shown in (Elisante et al., 2020; Klein et al., 2007). With the exclusion of natural disasters such as climate change and drought, there is need to create awareness about the human disturbances that promote pollinator declines, especially in pastoralist communities. As we showed, the linkage between pollinators and rangeland wellbeing was not directly established by the Maasai. A study by (Elwell, 2012) reported that livestock grazing does not affect abundance, richness or diversity of the overall pollinator assemblages or functional groups if on moderate levels. In general, if livestock grazing is done moderately it can promote dominating of herbaceous plants, which might support diverse insect pollinators in a sustainable way (Black et al., 2011).

Implication for Conservation

The results from this study show that majority of Maasai pastoralists have limited knowledge concerning insect pollinators apart from honey bees. While good work has been done on promoting beekeeping in the area, there is a need to create actions that will facilitate information and knowledge exchange between experts and Maasai on insect benefits, especially pollination. Communities should be well informed in broader insect benefits for all groups instead of honeybees only. Media such as radio and television may form an important tool to disseminate pollinator information, especially in rural areas of developing countries, where extension services are limited (Tarakini et al., 2020). More emphasis should be directed on balancing grazing management in alalili enclosures inorder to maintain large variety of pollinators and bee fodder plants that might contribute to beekeeping. The involvement of Maasai pastoralist in conservation and monitoring of pollinators in rangelands is of vital importance to understand current status and trends as well as understanding how grazing management and climate change in the area affect pollinators. This is of vital importance, especially in times when most Maasai have incorporated agriculture in their cultural pastoralism livelihood. Training on beneficial insects that assist in crop pollination and pest management (Mkenda et al., 2020), will help in bridging the knowledge gap and promote pollinator conservation in rangelands.