We examined wolf Canis lupus attacks on domestic dogs C. familiaris in six Finnish wolf territories occupied by mated pairs and packs. Most incidents (76%, N = 21 confirmed cases) took place inside one territory. The wolves mostly (70%) attacked dogs in house yards. It appeared that wolves in the territory were actively seeking for dogs rather than killing them as a result of random encounters. A strong tendency to attack dogs seemed to be adopted by pups born to the wolf pack. We did not find evidence that the density of primary prey or resident dogs were associated with the risk of wolf attacks.

Patterns of roe deer Capreolus capreolus body development are particularly interesting in view of the wide distribution range and different habitat conditions faced by the species throughout Europe. In order to investigate patterns of roe deer fawn body development in a sub-Mediterranean ecosystem, we caught 78 fawns during the four fawning seasons of 1997–2000. We investigated the effect of gender and date and year of birth on body mass of fawns in their first month of life. In agreement with earlier studies, there was a period of linear growth during which we found no differences in body mass between the sexes. Body mass varied significantly between years. The mean birth weight of 1,500 g did not show overall yearly variations, but fawns were heavier in 2000 than in 1998. Daily weight gain was more variable between years with fawns born in 2000 growing faster than fawns born in 1999 and 1997. Lastly, when fawns were split into two categories according to birth weight, light-born fawns had a significantly faster body development than heavy-born fawns. Therefore, we suggest that roe deer fawns may compensate for a low weight at birth. Such a compensatory process allows light-born fawns to catch up with heavy-born fawns by the end of their first month of life.

The impact of around nine roe deer Capreolus capreolus!km² on ground and shrub vegetation was assessed in a sample of six small woodlands on a largely arable estate in Dorset, southern England. In January 1996, 30 exclosures of 2 × 2 × 1.5 m and 30 paired controls were set up. Measurements of vegetation density at six height categories using a cover board were taken in late winter and mid-summer in each of the four years 1996–1999. Mean cover values were calculated for each woodland, and they indicated that the density of vegetative cover was reduced by deer browsing in winter and in summer. The effect of the browsing increased significantly within the four-year study period, and plant species composition had changed by the end of the study period. Our results suggest that roe deer may be having a substantial and potentially widespread effect on vegetative structure and composition in small farm woodlands in arable ecosystems in central southern England. The implications of this, for the characteristic wildlife and game species found in this common woodland habitat, are discussed.

The habitat selection criteria of moose Alces alces at several scales are the basic sets of information needed in moose management planning. We studied moose habitat use in central Finland during 1993–1996 using data from radio collared moose, satellite image based forest and land cover data, and applied the principles of compositional analysis. The habitat compositions of 54 home ranges (10 males during summer, six males during winter, 23 females during summer and 15 females during winter) were first compared with the overall landscape. The habitat compositions around moose locations within their home ranges were then compared with the habitat composition of the home range. Seasons and sexes were compared at both scales. In summer, there was only a slight difference between moose home ranges and the overall landscape. Based on tree species composition, home ranges are located in slightly more fertile areas than the overall landscape. Within their home ranges, moose favoured non-pine dominated habitats and mature forests, and avoided human settlements. In winter, the moose home ranges included significantly more pine-dominated plantations and other young successional stages than the overall landscape. The role of pine-dominated peatland forests/ shrub land was especially pronounced in winter. Winter home ranges included less agricultural land and human settlements than the overall landscape, probably due to the more distant location of important winter habitats from man-made landscapes. Within the home ranges, both sexes used non-pine dominated habitats more, and mature forests and human settlements less than expected. At the home range scale, there were no statistical differences between the sexes with respect to habitat use in either season. Within their home ranges, males and females used slightly different habitats during both seasons, suggesting spatially segregated habitat use by the individual sexes. The difference is more clear in winter when males tend to use more pine-dominated, young successional habitats than females. Compared to the situation in the summer, winter ranges are located in slightly more pine-dominated habitats with fewer settlements and agricultural fields. The shift in habitat use between the two seasons is more pronounced with respect to habitat use within the home range. Our results indicate that moose habitat selection criteria vary among different hierarchical levels of selection. We stress the importance of multi-scale assessment of the habitat and other resource selection of animals.

We documented hybridisation of domestic goats Capra aegagrus domestica with free-ranging male Alpine ibex Capra ibex ibex in a restricted area of the southern Swiss Alps in 1989–2001. The number of animals in the hybrid herd reached a maximum of 18 in 1998. We confirmed hybridisation through morphological data and genetic analysis. All presumed hybrids were larger and heavier than Alpine ibex. Horns of hybrids were longer than those of Alpine ibex, and some male horns lacked nodes. In two males studied, the first horn increment was longer than the second. In some cases the pelage colour revealed characteristics untypical for ibex such as prominent leg markings and dark brown colour in young animals. Microsatellite analysis in one male revealed ibex specific alleles as well as goat specific alleles. We concluded that this male, as well as the other animals studied, were Alpine ibex x domestic goat hybrids. All wild goats and their hybrid offspring were removed by state gamekeepers in 1998–2001 to maintain the genetic integrity of free-ranging Alpine ibex living in the area. We suggest that the survival of hybrids depends largely on habitat characteristics. In the study area, the hybrid winter range was exposed to the south. The sunny rocky slope was steep and reached down to an altitude of 1,500 m a.s.l. On this slope, animals found food in early spring and a refuge against adverse weather conditions.

Predatory birds were formerly suggested to have only negative effects on the breeding success of other birds that breed in the vicinity of their nests. However, the predator may also protect these breeding birds by chasing away other nest predators whilst either defending its own nest or by eating other predators in its territory. Ural owl Strix uralensis is known to be an aggressive nest defender. Although its diet mainly consists of voles, it also preys upon bird species (e.g. Corvidae) and even weasels Mustela nivalis, particularly when the vole densities are low. We carried out a dummy nest experiment on six Ural owl territories in central Finland to study whether Ural owls affect the nest predation rates of ground nesting birds. We found that although dummy nest predation differed between Ural owl territories, in every territory the predation risk was lowest in close proximity to Ural owl nests. The protecting effect of the predator continued for a distance of up to several hundred metres from its nest; a much further distance than could be expected if the effect was due solely to the defence of its own nest. Consequently, as suggested for other predatory birds, it may be that breeding Ural owls influence the bird community both directly by predating upon some species and/or indirectly by providing protection for other species. However, natural evidence on breeding habitat selection and predation risk of ground nesting birds should be obtained before detailed inferences on the effects of Ural owl nests on bird community levels are made.

Scat analysis is a widely used technique to assess food habits of wolves Canis lupus, but complete dissection and thorough hand separation of the undigested remains for their individual identification is laborious and time consuming. In addition, this technique is susceptible to inter-observer sources of error. Alternatively, the point-frame method allows systematic sampling of undigested remains of faecal samples and greatly reduces the processing time. Based on a sample of 200 wolf scats, we compared hand separation and point-frame methods using four widely used scat analysis quantification methods (frequency, volume and biomass models). Qualitative and quantitative estimates of the wolf diet showed close agreement between hand separation and point-frame procedures, but point-frame sampling allowed for an 85% reduction of the processing time. Given that the method is properly applied and its assumptions are met, we conclude that application of the point-frame method is reliable and more time effective than hand separation of wolf scat. The point-frame method could also provide a more rigorous sampling approach to reduce observer subjectivity as to what constitutes an accurate hand separation of undigested remains in scat.

The behavioural responses and habituation of fallow deer Dama dama to play-back sounds from repeatedly occurring acoustic road markings were studied during 13 nights. Our experimental design eliminated factors normally associated with passing vehicles (e.g. vehicle noise and light), and fallow deer were exposed to play-back sounds from road markings at predetermined time intervals. Though the distribution of the predefined behavioural responses ‘flight’, ‘alarm’, ‘movement of head’ and ‘no reaction’ varied among nights, the fallow deer exhibited increasing indifference to sounds from road markings with time, and this we explained as being habituation to the acoustic stimulus. As we expect our results to be valid for other species of deer as well, we find that acoustic road markings are not a reliable method to reduce the number of deer-vehicle collisions on a long-term basis.

We examined ruffed grouse Bonasa umbellus selection of landscape characteristics and cover types. Grouse home ranges derived from telemetry data gathered from fall 1996 through fall 1998 were overlaid onto a GIS map of the Clinch Mountain Wildlife Management Area, southwest Virginia, USA, composed of 22 cover types (10,343 ha). We calculated the landscape metrics using FRAG-STATS/ARC. We compared landscape metrics of 23 home ranges to those calculated for the area encompassed by the home range plus a surrounding 300 m buffer, and to metrics calculated for 50 random plots of 33 ha each. We used compositional analysis to test for preferential use of cover types. Ruffed grouse selected areas with high densities of smaller than average patches of uniform size and shape, containing higher than average amounts of high contrast edge (P < 0.01). Grouse preferred areas containing a greater diversity of cover types (P < 0.01). Regeneration cuts and mesic deciduous stands with a rhododendron Rhododendron spp.-laurel Kalmia latifolia understory were the most preferred cover types (P < 0.10). Creating and maintaining a landscape with high densities of small patches of uniform size and regular shape would provide the highest quality ruffed grouse habitat in this region. These patches should contain early successional cover. Rhododendron and/or laurel thickets may act as supplemental cover in the absence of regeneration cuts, and may also be beneficial as winter cover.

During September 2002, we conducted surveys focussing on the Tibetan plateau ungulate species in Yeniugou, Qinghai province, China, to compare abundance estimates with those from 1997 and the early 1990s. Wild yaks Bos grunniens, for which the area is named, evidently increased in number from about 1,200 to almost 1,700 animals. White-lipped deer Cervus albirostris, formerly quite rare in Yeniugou, also increased in number. Blue sheep Pseudois nayaur, Tibetan gazelle Procapra picticaudata and Tibetan wild ass Equus kiang remained almost steady or may have declined slightly. Tibetan antelope Pantholops hodgsoni which were historically resident in Yeniugou, but suffered a dramatic reduction during the 1990s, were completely absent in 2002. Argali Ovis ammon evidently continued to decline from their early 1990s level of approximately 250; we accounted for only 94 animals in 2002. We are uncertain of the causes for the argali decline, but the best supported hypothesis is that the recent increase in year-round presence of specific pastoral encampments has displaced argali groups from preferred seasonal foraging areas, causing permanent emigration, lower reproduction, higher mortality or some combination of the three. Poaching and disturbance from itinerant gold miners have declined in recent years, and most remaining species are fairing relatively well. The rapid development associated with the adjacent Qinghai-Tibet railroad has not yet affected the wildlife populations. Yeniugou contains probably the densest population of wild yaks in existence. Unfortunately, despite its obvious importance for Tibetan plateau fauna, Yeniugou still has no conservation-oriented management. Thus, wildlife populations are controlled indirectly by social and economic forces. Most Tibetan plateau mammals have limited tolerance for human activity; they persist in Yeniugou because people are still sparse. With the continued rapid economic development of nearby areas, the future of Yeniugou's wildlife will not be secure until incentives are created for pastoralists, county officials and higher government authorities to favour maintaining its essentially wild and undeveloped character.