We analysed the spatial and temporal dynamics of chick production of willow grouse Lagopus lagopus in the Swedish and Norwegian mountain region using harvest data covering 24–38 years and line-transect counts covering 6–10 years from the period 1960–2003. Juvenile and adult grouse were counted in the bag of harvested willow grouse in late August and throughout September at six sites in Sweden and Norway. In addition, numbers of juvenile and adult willow grouse were obtained from line-transect counts at 21 sites in Sweden just before the hunting season started on 25 August. The juvenile:adult ratio from the harvest data, estimated as number of juveniles per two adults, showed similar long-term averages and distributions between all six sites. The results from the line-transect counts revealed an overall higher average and a greater range of production between sites. We suggest that the difference between estimates based on line-transect counts and harvest data are caused by hunter behaviour. Hunters did not sample the juvenile and adult grouse in proportion to what was present in the population, e.g., productivity estimates derived from harvest samples will underestimate the proportion of juveniles in autumn in most years. We suggest that it is the harvest process that acts to adjust the juvenile to old bird ratio in the harvest data to a similar distribution in different sites. We found little evidence of regular fluctuations/cycles in annual production of juveniles from either harvest data or line-transect data. We conclude that chick production in willow grouse appears to fluctuate more irregularly than was previously believed based on harvest data and can not be used as a potential forecasting tool in willow grouse management as suggested earlier. Spatial correlation was weak and investigating only a limited number of sites to predict the proportion of juveniles in autumn should not be considered as a management tool for large areas such as the state-owned land in Sweden. Line-transect counts are costly, but do provide a more accurate estimate of the proportion of juveniles in the fall population than is revealed by harvest data. A more detailed understanding of hunter behaviour is obviously needed for better interpretation of harvest data.

The hazel grouse Bonasa bonasia is declining in many areas within its European distribution, particularly in managed forests. Adequate habitat management may thus be crucial for the regional survival of the species. So far management activities have tended to focus on the local scale. However, for the sustainable management of the hazel grouse and its habitat, the landscape scale also needs to be considered. We therefore evaluated whether habitat suitability for hazel grouse can be quickly, but adequately, modelled at the landscape scale with information obtained from aerial photographs. We mapped hazel grouse records in a forested area typical of large tracts of the Swiss Jura mountain range, and extracted data on habitat composition from infrared aerial photographs applying a bird-centred sampling approach. We then used the hazel grouse records together with an equal-sized data set of non-grouse plots to build predictive habitat suitability models using a generalised linear model (GLM) and a classification tree (TREE). The models were evaluated and then applied spatially explicitly to the 25 km² study area to compare their predictions for hazel grouse distribution. Hazel grouse preferred vertically and horizontally richly structured forest stands. Forest edge density, shrub and herb cover, stand structure and development stage were essential habitat variables. The resulting 5-fold cross-validated predictive habitat models performed well, having a kappa of 0.62 (GLM) and 0.8 (TREE), and a correct classification rate of 0.81 (GLM) and 0.90 (TREE). This suggests that predictive modelling based on a bird-centred analysis is an efficient way to assess habitat suitability for hazel grouse habitat management at the landscape scale.

During 1988–2004 we made 297 non-systematic direct observations of free-ranging brown bears Ursus arctos in the Cantabrian Range of Spain, one of the southernmost and most endangered populations in Europe. Observations were distributed over the whole calendar year, with records in every month. We classified 23 observations as breeding behaviour (male-female close interactions). They occurred between 17 April and 12 June, but mainly from the second week of May to the first week of June, both included. Matings (N = 12) took place between 25 April and 12 June, with one in April, nine in May and two in June. These dates indicated that the mating season started earlier in the Cantabrian bear population than in other Euroasiatic and American bear populations. Breeding bears showed greater diurnal activity in cloudy and rainy weather than did non-breeding bears in the same period. Also, breeding bears used brush more often than forests and grasslands when compared with other bears in the same areas and periods. Some mating areas were used repeatedly in different breeding seasons (up to five years). The observed behaviour could be related to the small size of the bear population, the reduced and fragmented forest habitat and the high level of human disturbance characteristic of the Cantabrian Mountains. Reproductive strategies and mating systems, including the spatial and temporal patterns of breeding activities, are considered important scientific topics with implications for the implementation of suitable conservation measures, for the bears as well as for their habitat.

We measured stable carbon and nitrogen isotope ratios of hair, muscle and potential food items of Japanese black bears Ursus thibetanus japonicus in Kyoto Prefecture and its surrounding area in order to determine the contributions of animal and plant foods. The δ¹³C values of hair samples of bears were −22.7 ± 0.4‰ in early summer, −22.8 ± 0.3‰ in late summer and −22.7 ± 0.7‰ in autumn, while δ¹⁵N values were 3.5 ± 0.4‰ in early summer, 3.2 ± 0.4‰ in late summer and 3.6 ± 0.5‰ in autumn. The δ¹³C values of muscle samples of bears were −24.6‰ in early summer, −23.2‰ in late summer and −23.1 ± 0.3‰ in autumn, while δ¹⁵N values of bears captured were 3.7‰ in early summer, 5.0‰ in late summer and 4.5 ± 0.7‰ in autumn. We determined the isotopic endpoints of seven food groups from the isotope ratios of food groups and calculated the contribution of each food group using a stochastic method. Our results suggested that animal components were the major constituent of body tissue, contributing > 61% in all samples except for muscle samples collected in early summer. In muscle samples collected in early summer, none of the food items were estimated to be the major source. In cases in which the animal components were estimated to be major food sources, invertebrates were estimated to account for most of the animal components. It was concluded that animal components are an important source of tissue material in Japanese black bears in Kyoto and its surrounding area.

We used radio-telemetry to study movement and territory use by 13 Eurasian badgers Meles meles in a well-preserved continuous woodland of Białowieża Primeval Forest (BPF), Poland. Daily movement distance (DMD) of badgers averaged 7 km, and daily range (DR) covered 2.1 km², i.e. 19% of their total home-range size. DMD and DR varied seasonally, being largest in summer when the availability of food resources was lowest. DMD was positively correlated with home-range size of badgers and the duration of their daily activity. Badgers moved with an average speed of 0.9 km/hour (maximum 7.1 km/hour). Nevertheless, travel speed was more than twice as fast after the emergence and before the return to the sett than during the peak of badger activity. This behaviour suggests that badgers moved directly to well-known and well-defined feeding patches. Indeed, we also found that the lengths of daily foraging routes was positively correlated with the number of patches of oak Quercus robur-lime Tilia cordata-hornbeam Carpinus betulus forests in a territory (ranging within 1–11), habitat which presents the highest earthworm abundance in BPF. Adult badgers of both sexes visited territory boundaries significantly more often than subadult individuals. Consecutive nightly ranges of badgers overlapped by 24%, which may indicate a rotational way of area use in order to defend large territories. Review of available data on mobility of badgers showed that mean daily movement ranged from 1.2 km in England to 7.0 km in our study. DMDs were positively correlated with home-range size. Average speed of badger movement varied from 0.3 km/hour in Spanish badgers to 1.1 km/hour in Swiss badgers. Our local data as well as the review of other European studies suggest that it is the length of the daily foraging routes that links food resources and home-range size. In areas with low abundance of earthworms and/or widely dispersed foraging patches, badgers move longer distances, cover larger daily ranges and defend large territories.

Calf losses are an acute issue in Fennoscandian reindeer Rangifer t. tarandus management. We studied calf mortality in northeastern Finnish Lapland using 621 calves (304 in 1997 and 317 in 1998) marked with silent mortality transmitters and followed their survival during 2 July 1997 - 31 January 1998 and during 22 June 1998 - 31 January 1999. In total, we found 43 dead calves and investigated their causes of death. A Kaplan-Meier analysis indicated 91.5% survival during July–January in both study years. However, differences in the temporal distribution of survival between the two study years were found. A minimum of 53% of total mortality was attributed to predation, with golden eagle Aquila chrysaetos being the main predator. Mortality caused by golden eagle comprised 2.8 and 4.2% during the study periods in 1997/98 and 1998/99, respectively. Body weight of the calves at midsummer (all weights adjusted on 2 July) was a significant predictor for survival, whereas sex and pelt colour were not. We conclude that predation is a major source of calf mortality during July–January, and that golden eagle predation was prominent, especially during midsummer and in open alpine landscapes.

Increasing outdoor activities by humans could negatively influence reindeer and caribou Rangifer tarandus populations. We recorded the behaviour of feral reindeer R. t. tarandus when a person directly approached them on foot or on skis in Forolhogna, Norway, during March, July and September–October 1996. The farther away the person was when first sighted, the greater the distance the reindeer group fled. The distance the reindeer moved away in response to the approaching person was greatest in July and least in September–October during autumn rut and shortly after the hunting season closed. In September–October rutting activities affected reindeer behaviour more than the disturbance caused by the directly approaching human. Both the distance at which the reindeer group responded by flight and the distance they moved away decreased with increasing group size. Upon flight, when all escape options were available, reindeer more often escaped uphill and into the wind than along level ground, downhill, down wind or crossways to the wind. All reindeer in a group moved towards the approaching human before taking final flight during 50% of 82 disturbance events, the closest approach was within 43 m in March, 24 m in July, and 13 m in September–October. No reindeer group responded by flight when the approaching human was still > 310 m away in March, > 351 m in July, and > 180 m in September–October. In relation to the current level of human activity in the area, our observations indicate no serious negative consequences for the reindeer following disturbance from a directly approaching human, not even shortly after the hunting season.

Deer-vehicle accidents are an increasing problem in many regions of the world. To elaborate effective mitigation measures, it is necessary to determine environmental factors associated with the occurrence of such accidents. The Lauren-tides Wildlife Reserve in Quebec, Canada, is a prime example of an area having a long-lasting problem of moose-vehicle accidents (MVAs). We tested the effect of the spatial and temporal variables most likely to influence MVAs in this area based on accidents recorded over a 13-year period. Data collected included the date and time of each collision as well as the position of the accident relative to the closest 1-km road marker. We calculated 10 variables to assess moose habitat suitability, moose density, topography and road design for every 1-km road segment. There was a total of 754 MVAs during 1990–2002. The period with the highest number of accidents was the second half of June but accident frequency remained relatively high from mid-May to late August. The risk of accident per vehicle was at least 2–3 times higher at night (when traffic volume was lowest) than during any other time of the day. Also, MVAs were over 42% more frequent on Fridays, when road traffic levels were highest. The probability of an MVA increased when air temperature and atmospheric pressure were high. The MVA rate increased with moose density, in the presence of at least one brackish pool (by 80%) and when a valley traversed the road (by 120%). Implications of our results in the choice of appropriate mitigation measures are discussed. Future work should aim to describe habitat characteristics at the actual collision site.

We use simple, multivariate evolutionary models to evaluate the short-term potential for size-selective harvest to reduce genetic variability and alter life history in cervids. These genetic effects limit sustainable levels of harvest of the animals because they determine how changes in sex ratio, generation length and traits contributing to fitness influence population growth rate and local adaptation. Our analysis of harvest-mediated adaptive evolution employs a genetic approach that parameterizes models with empirical data obtained from European red deer Cervus elaphus. The analysis indicates that harvest, if sufficiently high to reduce the breeding ratio of males to females to below about 15:100, can reduce effective population size to a level that threatens adaptive potential. The reduction in effective size is realized through decreases in both sex ratio of breeders and the age of breeding males. Predicted selective effects of harvest on body size indicates a weak potential to alter most life-history traits over 10 generations under two harvest scenarios; the patterns suggest that current modes of harvest are unlikely to produce substantial life-history changes in red deer over 10 or fewer generations unless the genetic influences on red deer traits are considerably higher than those predicted here. Nevertheless, male reproductive success is expected to decline detectably if male harvest rate is sufficiently high (> 30%). Collectively, our results imply that harvest methods should permit higher post-hunt male:female ratios (18:100 or higher) and ensure that a sufficient number of larger, older males survive the breeding season. The capacity of selective harvest to alter demography and life history depends heavily on the genetic covariance structure underlying variation in these traits, information that is unknown for many red deer populations. Prudent harvest management should therefore implement and monitor approaches to hunting that aim to conserve life-history variation; meanwhile, use of less selective methods can reduce the risk to long-term adaptive potential and may permit higher sustainable harvest rates.

Poaching can accelerate extinction processes, particularly when driven by commercial gain. We studied Punjab urial Ovis vignei punjabiensis, an endangered wild sheep, in two areas of the Salt Range in Pakistan, with contrasting human population densities and management regimes. In the Eastern Salt Range (ESR), humans live adjacent to urial habitat and enforcement of antipoaching regulations is lax. In the Kalabagh Game Reserve (KGR), human population density is low and regulations are strictly enforced. In ESR, about a quarter of the lamb crop was removed by poachers, and all rams > 6 years old were eliminated by illegal shooting. In KGR, < 5% of lambs were removed and about 34% of adult rams were ≥ 6 years old. Yearly recruitment was only four yearling females per 100 ewes in ESR, compared to about 13 yearling females per 100 ewes in KGR. Recruitment was insufficient to maintain the population in ESR. Poaching of newborn lambs to be kept as pets appears to be the greatest short-term threat to Punjab urial, recently exacerbated by the granting of licences to legally possess pet urial. Over the long term, the increasing human population in the area presents additional challenges.