Disturbances that change sagebrush Artemisia spp.-steppe communities may have an impact on greater sage-grouse Centrocercus urophasianus populations. Fire can rapidly alter sagebrush-steppe communities and may result in an increase in threetip sagebrush A. tripartita because this shrub is one of the few species of sagebrush that will sprout following fire. We examined the use of threetip sagebrush by sage-grouse as nest cover and compared nest success of grouse using threetip sagebrush to that of grouse using big sagebrush A. tridentata. Sage-grouse used threetip sagebrush as nest cover less than expected based on the abundance of this shrub. The only other species of sagebrush used as nest cover was big sagebrush, and sage-grouse used big sagebrush more than expected based on big sagebrush abundance. However, nest site selection was confounded by age of sage-grouse females. Sage-grouse that used big sagebrush as nest cover had greater nest success than grouse using threetip sagebrush. Our findings demonstrate another negative, but subtle, effect of fire on sage-grouse populations and further underscore the need for fire suppression and carefully implemented habitat rehabilitation projects.

We studied migration, birth rate and death rate of 59 grizzly bears Ursus arctos on a plateau (N = 29) with extensive forestry activities, and adjacent relatively undeveloped mountains (N = 30) during 1998–2003, to examine population parameters and/or limiting factors that might have contributed to a large difference in grizzly bear density between landscapes. Female bears in our low-density area (i.e. plateau) were heavier, in better condition, and more often accompanied by cubs than their mountain counterparts. Survival rates were comparable for adult bears but were significantly lower for subadult bears on the plateau. All deaths of bears which lived on the plateau for which cause of death was identified were human-caused as compared with one of three in the mountains. Plateau bear deaths were highest in fall coinciding with people hunting other species. Density-dependent factors appeared to be more important to mountain bear demographics, whereas bears on the plateau appeared to be limited by human-caused bear mortality. Forest harvest did not appear to have negative effects on reproductive parameters of female bears, but associated towns and roads allowed for high human-caused bear mortality. We did not record female dispersal between landscapes leading us to conclude that dispersal from the mountains is unlikely to offset human-caused mortality on the plateau.

Domestication can change animal traits such as skull size and shape. Given that domestic American mink Neovison vison may escape from farms within the native range of wild mink, we were interested in determining whether 1) skull characteristics differed between wild and domestic mink, and 2) free ranging mink in Ontario had skull features characteristic of domestic animals. Contrary to previous research, we found no effect of domestication on braincase volume or muzzle length in mink. We did, however, find that skulls of domestic mink were larger than those of wild mink and that domestic skulls had narrowed postorbital constrictions (POC). A model using both condylobasal length (CBL) and POC correctly classified the origin of 100% of male skulls and 90% of female skulls in an external data set. A POC-only model was less successful, however, correctly classifying 68% and 70% of male and female skulls, respectively. In a field application of the two-term model, only one of 109 skulls was identifed as being of farm origin. With the POC-only model, however, 12 skulls were classified as being from domestic animals. Where size differences are expected (for example, with recently escaped animals), the model should be effective for identifying domestic mink. However, the utility of CBL and POC for identifying domestic-origin or hybrid animals that have been born in the wild depends on a key uncertainty, namely, the extent to which these traits have a genetic basis.

Locating and monitoring animals using tracking devices is a method commonly used for many taxa to study characteristics such as home-range size, habitat selection, movement patterns and other aspects of ranging behaviour. Fitting such devices requires the capture and handling of the study organism and researchers must then assume that a monitored animal behaves in a ‘normal’ way. We investigated whether the capture and handling of roe deer Capreolus capreolus induced behavioural alterations. In particular, we expected that the roe deer would exhibit a ‘seeking a refuge and waiting before returning’ strategy immediately after release, taking shelter far from the capture scene, in closed habitat, and exhibiting a reduced activity level. We evaluated the effect of capture and handling on 112 roe deer equipped with GPS collars, during a period of 50 days after release. We compared the first 10 days after release with the subsequent days for the following behavioural parameters: distance to the barycentre of their GPS fixes, presence in forest habitat, distance to the nearest forest patch, distance to a source of human disturbance, and activity level. We found pronounced differences in terms of spatial behaviour, habitat use and overall activity level between the two periods in GPS monitored roe deer. We also found differences in terms of spatial displacement between the sexes, with females responding less than males, and among age classes, with yearlings responding most and fawns least, to the capture and handling event. Finally, spatial displacement of roe deer increased with openness of the habitat due, in part, to the scarcity of available shelter in open areas. We conclude that the roe deer exhibited a strategy consisting of seeking a refuge and waiting before returning after capture, handling and fitting of a collar, with displacement towards a refuge habitat, in or near woodland, avoidance of sources of human disturbance and reduced activity levels. From a practical point of view, we recommend removing data during the first days of monitoring as behavioural alterations due to capture and handling may be pronounced.

Recent declines of mule deer Odocoileus hemionus, ostensibly a result of low rates of recruitment, highlight the importance of understanding relationships between parturient females and their critical habitats. We estimated timing of parturition for 20 mule deer in northeastern Oregon, USA, using movement data from global positioning system (GPS) collars in 2005 and 2006. We then evaluated patterns of resource selection by female mule deer during late gestation, the week of parturition, and subsequent lactation to determine how different stages of reproduction influenced habitat selection. Movement rates of all but one deer declined sharply between late-May and mid-June, when female mule deer give birth in northeastern Oregon. Patterns of resource selection also varied substantially relative to the estimated time of parturition. Prior to parturition, female mule deer selected gentle south-facing slopes dominated by ponderosa pine Pinus ponderosa and avoided permanent water sources. Parturient females also selected areas used concurrently by elk Cervus elaphus. Following parturition, however, females selected steep north-facing slopes dominated by fir Abies spp., avoided elk and selected habitat located close to permanent water sources. Stage of reproduction clearly influenced choice of habitat by female mule deer. Mule deer management plans should consider potential seasonal variability in the relative importance of forage, risk of predation and competition.

Fluctuating asymmetry (FA) is a measure of the deviation from perfect bilateral symmetry, and has been used across mammals as a reliable indicator of environmental stress during growth and development. Antler size and symmetry can be an indicator of individual fitness and social rank among ungulates such as the North American elk Cervus elaphus. When environmental conditions are favourable, ungulates allocate additional resources to antler development to increase secondary sexual traits and enhance reproduction. We tested whether there was an appreciable change in antler length and the number of points as extreme climatic conditions (e.g. heavy snow and drought) reduced the nutritional condition of elk using 8,690 antler measurements collected at hunter check stations in south-central Montana surrounding the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem (GYE) during 1982–2006. We also hypothesized that FA in elk antlers would increase at high elk density because of density-dependent competition for food. We developed a priori general linear models of FA expressed as a function of climate covariates, elk density and relevant ecological interactions between the variables. In contrast to previous studies, especially of European ungulates, our results show little support for strong effects of climate or density on FA in length or the number of points. Thus, North American elk do not appear to respond to environmental variation by varying allocation to antler growth, instead they show stronger age-related effects on FA.

Many environmental patterns that may have profound effects on wildlife communities occur at the landscape scale, e.g. habitat fragmentation, human demography and distribution of various resources. In order to understand how alterations of such patterns could influence e.g. wildlife species occurrences and community composition, it is important to first study these relationships empirically and at the appropriate scale. We surveyed the wildlife community in a boreal ecosystem in central Sweden using pellet group counts, while walking ‘wildlife triangles’. Our main aim was to investigate how the distribution of medium- and large-sized wild mammals and large-sized forest birds were affected by environmental variables at the landscape scale. In 2001–2003, pellet groups of mammals and forest birds were counted on 211 triangular routes with a perimeter of 4 4 4 km. The pellet groups which had accumulated after leaf fall were counted in spring. The environmental properties of each triangle, including information on latitude, altitude, infrastructure, land cover, forest type and forest stage, were determined using GIS maps. Statistical analyses involved mainly ordination (Principal Component Analysis, PCA). Significant environmental variables explaining the wildlife community composition and distribution in the boreal ecosystem were altitude, clear-felling and infrastructure. Our conclusion, however, is that most boreal mammal and forest bird species are habitat generalists and show little spatial pattern in distributions at the landscape scale. This indicates that habitat selectiveness probably occurs at a local scale in the boreal forest. Ultimately, our conclusion provides important direction for e.g. conservation measures and wildlife management.

Improvement of breeding success is key to capercaillie Tetrao urogallus conservation in Scotland. However, factors affecting breeding success are not fully understood, including the cause of nest loss. We monitored 20 capercaillie nests with video or digital cameras at Abernethy Forest, Scotland to measure nest loss, determine causes of losses, and describe nest attendance by females. The mean date for the onset of incubation was 15 May and mean clutch size was 7.25 eggs. During incubation, females usually left the nest twice a day (range: 0–4), on average 28 minutes after sunrise and 2 hours 13 minutes before sunset, for a total of 53 minutes per day. There were no egg losses during egg laying, and the daily loss of clutches during incubation (26 days) was 0.0427 (95% CI = 0.0191–0.0663). However, an experiment with artificial nests suggested that predation rates were higher where video cameras were installed than at nests where they were not. After adjusting for the potential effect of deployment of the video system, the daily loss of the capercaillie nests was 0.0205 (95% CI = 0.0074–0.0554). Thus, the probability of a nest failing was 0.68 (95% CI = 0.39–0.83, unadjusted) or 0.42 (95% CI = 0.18–0.77, adjusted). This adjusted estimate at Abernethy Forest was close to the mid-range of other studies of capercaillie nest loss in Scotland and elsewhere in Europe. Eleven of the nests were depredated, nine by pine martens Martes martes and two by unknown predators. One nest was abandoned. Based upon unadjusted daily predation rates, predators destroyed 65% of nests (57% known to be by pine martens) or, after adjusting for the potential effect of the video system, 39% of nests (33% known to be by pine martens). A better understanding of factors affecting pine marten (a protected species in the UK) numbers and hunting patterns is required before a habitat management plan can be implemented to reduce pine marten predation on capercaillie nests.

Counts of faecal droppings are a useful approach for the non-invasive monitoring of species presence and abundance. However, for game birds, it is often difficult to determine unequivocally the species origin of the droppings. Here, we compare the utility of two molecular approaches which exploit variation in the cytochrome b region of mitochondrial DNA to distinguish the droppings of black grouse Tetrao tetrix from those of red grouse Lagopus lagopus scoticus and capercaillie Tetrao urogallus. A sensitive detection method is required as DNA extracts from droppings tend to yield poor quality DNA in low copy number. The first approach adopted a real-time PCR method in which primers were used to amplify a small fragment in the mitochondrial cytochrome b region, and fluorogenic probes complementary to species-specific SNPs were designed. The success of this test was compared with that of conventional, end point PCR followed by DNA sequencing of a 346 bp mitochondrial cytochrome b region containing the shorter sequence used in the real-time PCR test. In samples which produced results with both the real-time and sequencing approaches, the results were always in agreement. However, the sequencing approach, when used in conjunction with hot-start Taq PCR, proved superior as it worked in a greater number of samples than the real-time method. The length of clear sequence generated allowed secure identification based on several species-specific SNPs. The development of a molecular approach based on a commercially available DNA extraction kit followed by off-site sequencing now offers a secure method of identifying the species origin of field-collected grouse droppings and requires only basic knowledge of molecular techniques and inexpensive molecular equipment.

Reeves's pheasant Syrmaticus reevesii is a threatened species endemic to China. During April 2000 - August 2003, we studied home range size, daily movements and site fidelity of 17 male Reeves's pheasants at Dongzhai National Nature Reserve in central China. Average annual home range size was 44.9 ± 24.6 ha (minimum convex polygon) and 23.8 ± 13.7 ha (95% fixed kernel estimation). The average annual core area determined by 60% fixed kernel estimator was 4.2 ± 3.5 ha. Home range size was generally smaller in winter than in spring, whereas the size of the core area remained stable through all seasons. Conifer-broadleaf mixed forests occupied a very large part of home ranges and core areas. Male pheasants exhibited strong site fidelity among seasons and years. Our results provide baseline data for habitat management, habitat restoration and reintroduction of the Reeves's pheasant.

The aim of my study was to estimate the effect of brown hare Lepus europaeus density, vole abundance and habitat diversity on the occurrence of hares in the diet of red fox Vulpes vulpes during the breeding season in agricultural landscapes. I used the average number of adult hares found among food remains scattered around a number of breeding dens of foxes (10–24/year), and analysed its temporal variation during 1997–2006 in an area located in western Poland; furthermore, I analysed the spatial variation based on results from 21 areas in various other regions of the country. Spring hare density, vole abundance index (logarithm of the number of burrow entrances/km) and habitat diversity (number of structural elements/km) were estimated using line transects of 20–61 km. In the low hare density area (5–10 individuals/km²) in western Poland, the number of hares/fox den was influenced by hare density rather than by vole abundance. In the various areas with high hare densities (11–28 individuals/km²), multiple regression analysis showed a positive effect of hare density (R²=40%) and a negative effect of vole abundance index (R²=24%) on the number of hares/fox den, whereas the effect of habitat diversity index (R²=13%) was only close to being significant. In the case of low hare density range (1–10 individuals/km²), the number of hares/fox den decreased with the habitat diversity index (R²=56%). Therefore, proper habitat management in agricultural areas should lead to a reduction of red fox pressure on brown hare, especially in areas with low-density hare populations.