An emphasis on global markets for non-timber forest products (NTFPs) often overshadows attention to the local trade in many traditionally important products. Inattention to local markets can result in diminished appreciation of their role in supporting livelihoods and potentially lead to further marginalisation of the low-income groups involved. This paper draws on the literature and the research experience of the authors in three different regions of the world to demonstrate the significance of local markets for NTFPs and to build a case for recognising and strengthening support to them. Discussion includes: features of these markets and current trends favouring them; the benefits they bring to producers and traders; their comparative advantages and disadvantages in relation to their role in strengthening livelihoods; and the policy reforms and development support required to improve them. We conclude that a combination of both strong local and export markets permits diversification and choice, assisting poor local people to minimise livelihood risk due to dependence on any single market.

Climate change will pose increasing challenges to forest managers working to achieve sustainable forest management in the boreal forest. To date, discussions around when, where and how to consider adaptation in forest management plans for the boreal forest have been limited. As a starting point, specific objectives for climate change adaptation need to be articulated, which we consider to be synonymous with the criteria for conservation and sustainable management of boreal forests as defined by the Montréal Process. Secondly, because forest management plans are hierarchal — there are higher level strategic plans and lower level operational plans — it is important to distinguish at which planning level adaptation options are most appropriately considered. The purpose of this paper is to put forward a range of alternative adaptation options that forest managers working in the boreal zone could consider during the development of strategic and operational forest management plans in order to achieve sustainability as defined by the Montréal Process.

How are forestry decentralisations evolving in Latin America? What role are municipal governments playing, and to what extent are the needs of forest-dependent peoples being taken into account? This article represents a synthesis of research findings from Bolivia, Brazil, Guatemala, Honduras and Nicaragua. It assesses current trends in Latin American forestry decentralisations, with particular attention to different conceptions of decentralisation, the role of sub-national governments and the problems of forest-dependent groups. With regard to sub-national governments, the research finds that the principal tendency in the decentralisation of decision-making over forests is through contractual arrangements between local or state governments and forestry institutes. For their part, forest-dependent groups are not able to improve their opportunity to engage in forestry-based activities without specific policies operating in their favour — beginning with secure access to forest resources — and such policy changes have most often come about in response to organised demands and in policy spheres outside of forestry.

Comment évoluent les décentralisations de la foresterie en Amérique Latine? Quel rôle jouent les gouvernements municipaux , et jusqu'où les besoins des groupes dépendant de la forêt sont-ils pris en compte? Cet article représente une synthèse des résultats de recherches en Bolivie, au Guatémala, au Honduras et au Nicaragua. Il évalue les différents courants dans la décentralisation de la foresterie en Amérique Latine, en portant une attention particulière sur les diverses conceptions de la décentralisation, le rôle des gouvernements sous-nationaux, et les problèmes des groupes dépendant de la forêt. Dans le cas des gouvernements sous-nationaux, la recherche réalise que la tendance principale dans la décentralisation des prises de décision quant à la forêt s'opère dans des arrangements de contrats entre les gouvernements locaux ou d'état, et les instituts forestiers. De leur côté, les groupes dépendant de la forêt ne peuvent pas améliorer leur opportunité de s'engager dans des activités basées sur la foresterie sans que des prises de décision spécifique n'oeuvrent en leur faveur, en commençant par un accès sûr aux ressources de la forêt. De tels changements de politique ne sont souvent entrés en scène qu'en réponse aux demandes organisées et aux sphères politiques en dehors de la foresterie.

Due to various environmental and economic benefits, renewable energy has been developed rapidly in the United States over the past several decades. In this study, the status, challenges, and public policies related to the development of bioenergy products from forest-derived woody biomass were reviewed. At present, existing utilization of forest biomass for energy purpose in the United States has been dominated by the forest products industry in generating heat and power for internal use. Proposed forest biomass utilization for energy has focused on producing motor biofuels. Key conversion technologies for woody biomass are still undergoing research and development and are not yet fully viable for commercial production. Other challenges for forest biomass utilization include high harvesting and transportation costs, overlapping demand for some forest biomass, and market promotion for new bioproducts. Since the 1970s, many laws and polices have been passed to help and guide the development of bioenergy in the United States. Woody biomass utilization has received increasing attention and assistance in recent years.

This paper analyses environmental, social and economic impacts of FSC certification in Estonian state forests. The rapid expansion in forest certification is causing the need to evaluate actual costs and benefits of certification at the organizational and macroeconomic levels. The authors have used results of stakeholder interviews, comprehensive questionnaires among the staff of the certified State Forest Management Centre and a field inventory of managed forests. Results reveal that certification has increased the reputation of the certified organization and the international reputation of Estonian forestry in general. FSC certification has helped to improve several social and environmental aspects of forest management. On the other hand certification has not reduced the share of clear-cut free forestry or increased the preference for mixed stands, as hoped by many stakeholders.

This study applied satisfaction as the mediating variable and combined theory of planned behaviour to develop the ecotourism behavioural model for national forest recreation areas in Taiwan. Six national forest recreation areas in different altitude zones were sampled using stratified random sampling. Visitors were randomly sampled and surveyed at national forest recreation area exits using the systematic sampling method. A total of 1 057 valid questionnaires were analyzed. Attitude, subjective norm and perceived behavioural control affected satisfaction directly and behavioural intention and behaviour indirectly. Subjective norm had the strongest affect on satisfaction, followed by perceived behavioural control and attitude. Satisfaction and behavioural intention were significant mediating variables in this behavioural model.

The paper analyses the development towards Sector-Wide Approaches (SWAps) in the forestry sector in Tanzania, Mozambique and Vietnam. The main research question is: does the sector-wide approach promote effective delivery of aid? There are two critical factors in effective implementation of SWAps in the forestry sector: (a) efficiency in financial flow and management, and (b) national ownership in the forestry sector development. The paper argues that SWAps in forestry might be less successful than in other sectors because of the dominance of market forces in the forestry sector, and might not be the most effective way to deliver aid because of the dependence on the quality of institutional capacity in the recipient countries and donor countries. SWAps and direct budget support (DBS) may take several years to begin producing concrete results in rural development and poverty reduction. The paper concludes that a range of support modalities are needed, and SWAps and DBS are important in developing national ownership. However, in all likelihood, projects in the forestry sector will remain important instruments for implementing sector strategies and national development frameworks.

This Comment synthesises a PhD by Publications research narrative on the theme of economic incentives for tropical forest management and conservation. The narrative reveals an evolution from a focus on market incentives and non-market benefits to an increasing emphasis on governance and regulatory incentives in explaining stakeholder behaviour to the forest resource. It was found that in general market incentives for timber-based sustainable forest management (SFM) and conservation are weak. It is concluded that key missing ingredients for SFM and conservation are domestic and global governance, including regulations that create payments for ecosystem service (PES) markets and capture public good values, secure property rights for resident stakeholders and more appropriate extra-sectoral policies. Because of their global public good values, the survival of tropical forests is contingent on the actions of the international community and governments.

CITES (the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora) controls international trade in species listed in its three Appendices. While timber species have been listed under its three appendices since its inception in 1975, CITES has not been considered as widely used for controlling timber species in trade as it has been for other wildlife species. Even so, there are a number of provisions within CITES that apply equally to timber species, in terms of management, and throughout its value chain up to the points of export, import and, uniquely to CITES, re-export. However, the capacity of CITES to combat illegal logging in particular, and to manage native timber species for conservation and economic benefit in general, is not used to its full potential. CITES can fulfill this role if all parties work together and do not perceive CITES as merely a trade ban, or a Convention only about restricting timber trade, but more as a useful tool to complement management of this important natural resource.