Pietrafesa, L.J., 2012. On the continued cost of upkeep related to groins and jetties.

So-called terminal groins, which are actually jetties at the terminus of barrier islands where inlets are located, have been the subject of controversy for half a century in North Carolina. Coastal scientists have opposed these hardened structures and point to their destructive effects upon downstream beaches, requiring ever increasing and costly beach renourishment projects. Meanwhile, some coastal engineers have claimed that they can be used to “stabilize” migrating inlets. Local politicians, in response to real estate interests, have argued for the construction of the hardened structures and, in contrast to the claims of the scientists on the ground, have cited examples of success in North Carolina and at other locales on the U.S. eastern seaboard. So what are the facts? This Editorial presents the documented facts for North Carolina and the other U.S. east coast locales.

March, R.G. and Smith, E.H., 2012. Modeling potential coastal vegetation response to sea level rise and storm surge on estuarine peninsulas.

Upland vegetation changes in response to sea level rise and storm surge were evaluated on two peninsulas adjacent to the Copano Bay–Aransas Bay system and within a semiarid coastal environment in south-central Texas. Potential natural land cover models were created in a geographical information system (GIS) using soil data attributes and elevation data to compare land cover shifts under various sea level rise and storm surge scenarios. Ecological sites used as mapping units were related to land cover classes by generating a classification crosswalk. Crosswalks were expanded in the GIS to define how each land cover type would change with each meter of estuarine inundation using digital elevation models. Potential natural land cover maps show that grassland and/or evergreen are concentrated in the center of both peninsulas with grassland lining the perimeter. Mainland connections of Lamar and Live Oak peninsulas are primarily salty prairie and grassland, respectively. On Lamar Peninsula, a 1-m sea level rise results in a conversion of salty prairie (−99%) to estuarine emergent ( 97%). A total rise of 3 m reduces grassland by 99% and evergreen forest by 71%. A 1-m sea level rise on Live Oak Peninsula eliminates over half of the salty prairie, which becomes estuarine emergent class. These values indicate the vegetation that will at least be temporarily impacted by storm surge. Higher elevations and steeper slopes on Live Oak Peninsula result in lower inundation values for upland habitats as compared with Lamar Peninsula. Sea level rise and storm surge events will continue to be a major influence on vegetative composition in estuarine environments and should be considered in future land use and conservation planning.

Chao, M.; Shi, Y.; Quan, W.; Shen, X.; An, C.; Yuan, Q., and Huang, H., 2012. Distribution of benthic macroinvertebrates in relation to environmental variables across the Yangtze River Estuary, China.

This article reports on a study of the spatial and seasonal distribution of benthic macroinvertebrates and reveals the correlation between benthic macroinvertebrate community and environmental variables in the Yangtze River Estuary, China. A total of 75 species from seven phyla were identified during sample collection in May, August, and November of 2010 and February of 2011; among which, Annelida and Mollusca were found to be the predominant phyla. No significant difference in the community parameters (species, abundance, biomass, Shannon-Winner index, distinctness) of benthic macroinvertebrates was observed among survey trips. In contrast, an increasing tendency of abundance and biomass from river channels to the east waters was observed, and the differences between different geographic zones or community clusters were confirmed with a Kruskal-Wallis test. Compared with the data of the 1980s in the Yangtze River Estuary, the species richness, biomass, and abundance has decreased greatly. Distinct groups were classified based on clusters and nonmetric multidimensional scaling (nMDS) analysis. Corbicula fluminea, Potamocorbula amurensis, Nassarius variciferus, and Notomastus latericeus were the dominant species in abundance in clusters I, II, IIIa, and IIIb, respectively. The most abundant species during all four survey trips were Glycera chirori, Notomastus latericeus, Heterospio sinica, and Cossura longocirrata, all of which belong to the polychaetes. Our study demonstrated that the distribution of benthic macroinvertebrates in the Yangtze River Estuary was closely related to environmental variables. Salinity, bottom water temperature, sand content (C_S), silt content (C_T), and pH were explanatory variables for the spatial and seasonal distribution across the Yangtze River Estuary. Salinity was the factor that most determined the spatial distribution of the species, temperature determined the species occurrence on the entire estuarine scale, and the high content of silt favored the abundance of polychaetes.

Kim, Y.C.; Choi, M., and Cho, Y.-S., 2012. Tsunami hazard area predicted by probability distribution tendency.

The recent occurrence of tsunamis that have caused a significant loss of human life and property has aroused considerable attentions to the natural disaster. Tsunami disaster prevention policy is generally focused on the creation of hazard maps based on virtual tsunamis. To increase the efficacy of such maps, the flooding hazard area at one location, Jumunjin Port, was predicted in this study. The flooding height expected to cause human losses was determined, and the probability of the simulated tsunami flooding exceeding this height was calculated at each point of the grid covering the flooding hazard area. To obtain the flooding data, a numerical simulation was conducted of the propagation and inundation of a virtual tsunami. To determine the probability distribution type of the flooding data, a goodness-of-fit test, namely, the probability plot correlation coefficient (PPCC) test, was used, and the normal, lognormal, exponential, and Gumbel distributions were assumed to be the probability distribution types of the flooding height data. The best-fit probability distribution type among the four probability distribution types was determined at each point. The probability of flooding exceeding the criterion height was calculated for each grid point using the cumulative distribution function (CDF) that corresponded to the best-fit probability distribution. The lognormal distribution was found to be the most appropriate distribution type for the tsunami flooding height.

Lumbreras, A.; Tahiri, H.; Pinto-Cruz, C.; Pardo, C., and Molina, J.A., 2012. Habitat variation in vernal pool ecosystems on both sides of the Strait of Gibraltar.

We studied vernal pool (VP) ecosystems along a latitudinal gradient crossing the Strait of Gibraltar in order to determine its role in the distribution of VP plant communities. We analyzed flora, vegetation, physical–chemical water parameters, and climatic data from two vernal pool areas on both the European (Iberian) and African (Moroccan) sides of the Strait. Despite the minor distance between both territories, the pools clearly differed in species composition and ecology. However, they showed a similar vegetation zonation in growth forms, including isoetid, batrachiid, and helophytic vegetation. The distribution of the plant communities was related to nutrient load, temperature, and precipitation. Water nitrate concentration was higher in Morocco, where VPs are characterized by Isoetes velata subsp. adspersa and Ranunculus saniculifolius communities. Iberian VPs had lower water nitrate content, and were characterized by Isoetes velata subsp. velata and Ranunculus peltatus communities. We think this nutrient difference is likely to be caused by the different land management regime on each side of the Strait, with more intensive agriculture in Morocco. Long-term (historical) and present-day (ecological) processes have been proposed to account for the habitat variation in vernal pool ecosystems on both sides of the Strait of Gibraltar.

Almar, R.; Ranasinghe, R.; Sénéchal, N.; Bonneton, P.; Roelvink, D.; Bryan, K.R.; Marieu, V., and Parisot, J-P., 2012. Video-based detection of shorelines at complex meso–macro tidal beaches.

Remote video imagery is widely used to acquire measurements of intertidal topography by means of shoreline detection, but, up to now, problems of accuracy were still encountered in the challenging case of energetic waves in nonuniform, meso–macro tidal environments. Unique, simultaneous, video-based and global positioning system (GPS)–based measurements of shoreline were undertaken at Truc Vert (France), a beach with such characteristics. An innovative video method, referred to herein as the Minimum Shoreline Variability (MSV) method, was developed to cope with highly variable spatiotemporal shoreline properties. The comparison of video-based and GPS-derived shoreline data sets showed that using images averaged over short periods (30 s), rather than the traditionally used 10-min averaged images, significantly improved the accuracy of shoreline determination. A local video-derived, swash-based shoreline correction was also developed to correct for the MSV error, which was found to be linearly correlated to local swash length. By combining shorter time-averaged images and video derived local swash correction factors, the horizontal root mean square error associated with MSV shorelines was reduced to 1.2 m, which is equivalent to errors reported at more uniform, microtidal, and less-energetic beaches.

Anselmi-Molina, C.M.; Canals, M.; Morell, J.; Gonzalez, J.; Capella, J., and Mercado, A, 2012. Development of an operational nearshore wave forecast system for Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands.

An assessment of coastal information needs in Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands identified real-time wave data and improved wave forecasts as essential for supporting nearshore operations in the region. After deployment of operational wave-measuring buoys off the north, south, east, and west coasts of the Puerto Rico–Virgin Islands archipelago, the Simulating WAves Nearshore (SWAN) model was implemented for the region. The main purpose of its implementation is to provide for data needs in areas not well represented by the buoys as well as for filling the nearshore gap not addressed by the operational National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Multigrid WAVEWATCH III (NMWWIII) model forecast. The model consists of a nesting between WWIII and SWAN where oceanic boundary conditions in the form of two-dimensional wave spectra are supplied by the NMWWIII model. In this study we present results from two model-validation experiments under varying physical-forcing scenarios, one in which swell waves dominate (Rincón) and one in which wind swell dominates (Ponce). The results show good agreement between the observed and the modeled wave field for the Rincón domain, on Puerto Rico's northwest coast and facing the Atlantic Ocean, which indicates that appropriate boundary conditions are being obtained from NMWWIII and propagated correctly by SWAN into nearshore areas. Results for the Ponce domain, in Puerto Rico's southern coast and facing the Caribbean Sea, highlight the need for more accurate high-resolution wind products to properly resolve the wind-driven wave field dominating this area.

Park, E.-J.; Yu, K.B.; Ku, C.Y.; Psuty, N.P.; Kim D., and Shin, Y.H., 2012. Short-term sedimentation processes and accretion rates in the Sunchon Bay estuarine marsh, South Korea.

Spatial variations in sedimentation during individual tidal cycles were investigated using filter paper traps. The mean mass of sediment deposited in each tidal cycle was higher at the levee edge than at the inner marsh. The mass of sediment decreased with distance from the head of the estuary. There were weak relationships between tidal regime and sediment accumulation. Spatial variations of annual accretion rates were investigated with marker plots. The annual accretion rate at the inner marsh was higher (1.5 to 3.5 cm/y) than that at the tidal river levee edge (0.8 to 3.0 cm/y). Total suspended sediment (TSS) concentrations in the tidal water column indicated that the accretion rate was affected by vegetation. TSS concentrations in the water column leaving the vegetation cover during ebb tidal flows dramatically decreased. There were strong relationships between the concentration of suspended load and accretion rate. The spatial pattern of sedimentation processes at different timescales was mostly due to erosion of the levee edge by tidal flow. The major findings are: (1) The spatial patterns of sedimentation processes at various timescales are different, (2) vertical accretion rates ranged from 0.9 cm/y to 3.5 cm/y, (3) the study area has a depositional regime over the timescale of the present data, (4) the mean and minimum deposition rates in the study area are higher than other cited systems, and (5) the high accretion rate of this area is related to human-induced environmental change, and the sedimentation trajectory is now evolving to a new equilibrium.

Flores-Morales, A.L.; Parés-Sierra, A., and Gómez-Valdivia, F., 2012. Semiannual Kelvin Waves in the Northeastern Tropical Pacific.

Sixteen years of altimetry data has been used to analyze the seasonal sea surface height variability in the Northeastern Tropical Pacific (NeTP). Extended Empirical Orthogonal Functions revealed that a Semiannual Kelvin Wave (SKW), originated in the central equator (160° W), is responsible for most of the semiannual variability in the NeTP coast. The SKW propagated poleward, acting as a source of Rossby waves that contributed to the semiannual variability in the ocean interior. At ∼20° N the SKW vanished because of the abrupt change of the coastal tilt. Although the annual frequency dominates most of the variability in the NeTP, spectral analysis showed that in the eastern equator the semiannual frequency dominated, whereas along the coast, except for the Gulf of Tehuantepec, the amount of energy associated with the semiannual frequency was comparable to that associated with the annual one.

Keen, T.R. and Stavn, R.H., 2012. Hydrodynamics and marine optics during cold fronts at Santa Rosa Island, Florida.

Observations of optical and hydrodynamic processes were made on the open beach on Santa Rosa Island, Florida, in March 1995. This study focuses on the passage of two cold fronts. The observations have been supplemented by a bio-optical model; a suite of hydrodynamic models to simulate coastal flows forced by waves, tides, local wind, and coastal sea level; and a geo-optical model that predicts scattering by mineral particles resuspended by wave action. These models have been used to examine the interaction of atmospheric forcing and hydrodynamics with respect to the observed marine hydrosol. The optical and hydrodynamic measurements, and the model results, have been used to conceive a cold-front regime model of the hydrosol for open beaches in the Gulf of Mexico. The optical environment during the cold front was determined by three hydrosol phases: (1) a prefrontal steady-state hydrosol consisting of fine resuspended mineral particles, phytoplankton cells, organic detritus, and colored dissolved organic matter; (2) a frontal phase dominated by resuspended mineral particles; and (3) a postfrontal hydrosol containing large phytoplankton, detritus, and fine mineral particles. This concept is useful for identifying the physical processes responsible for observed optical properties. It should be applicable to other regions and types of events.

Zhao, M.; Yu, K.; Zhang, Q.; Shi, Q., and Price, G.J., 2012. Long-term decline of a fringing coral reef in the northern South China Sea.

The Luhuitou coral reef is a fringing reef at Hainan Island in the northern South China Sea. Since the 1960s, the reef has experienced several significant ecological changes. During that interval, the mean coral cover decreased dramatically from 80–90% in 1962–65 and to just 12% in 2009. In the 1960s, the coral community structure was divided into three well-defined zones: a Goniastrea zone and Montipora zone (both on the reef flat) and an Acropora zone (on the reef slope). However, by 2009, Porites lutea became the dominant species on the reef flat, whereas the predominance of Acropora on the reef slope weakened significantly. There are few long-established Porites lutea colonies present, with approximately 80% being younger than 30 years old. This demographic pattern differs significantly from healthy coral reefs, which are typically dominated by large, well-established (and mature) coral colonies. The long-term decline of the Luhuitou coral reef has most likely been driven as a result of anthropogenic activities, such as overfishing, destructive fishing, reef rock digging, and mariculture and tourism activities. Our study reinforces previous works and highlights the vulnerability of coral reefs to anthropogenic impacts.

Choi, J.; Lee, J.-I., and Yoon, S.B., 2012. Surface roller modeling for mean longshore current over a barred beach in a random wave environment.

The effect of surface roller on mean longshore current, which depends strongly on the wave-breaking process, was investigated by applying various surface-roller models to a random wave-induced current-model system, incorporating a nearshore circulation model, SHORECIRC, and a random wave model, SWAN. The investigation was performed based on simulations of the SandyDuck field experiments, employing observed wave spectra and two-dimensional topography. The topography is characterized as a longshore variation caused by scouring because of bridge piers and a barred beach on a steep foreshore slope linked to a relatively broad bar formation on a seaward gentle slope. The experimental data show that before the waves intensely broke from a decrease in water depth on the steep slope, some partial breaking of random waves occurred in the wave-breaking process. The chosen surface-roller model was modified using the classification of the partial wave-breaking and intense wave-breaking regions. The mean longshore currents simulated using the modified surface-roller model was compared with the measurements as well as the results from the simulations using conventional surface-roller models. The modified simulations agreed with the measurements better than did those of the simulations.

Hagen, S.C.; Bacopoulos, P.; Cox, A.T., and Cardone, V.J., 2012. Hydrodynamics of the 2004 Florida hurricanes.

We studied the hydrodynamic response caused by the four major hurricanes that struck Florida's coasts in 2004: Charley, Frances, Ivan, and Jeanne. A large-scale, shallow-water-equation model was applied so as to simulate wind and tidally driven hydrodynamics from the deep ocean into the shelf and coastal waters of Florida. Hurricane Ivan served as the calibration case, where the adjusted parameter was the wind drag coefficient. We identified an “increased” wind drag coefficient to perform best and suggest it as a first approximation to the wave contribution to the hydrodynamics. The increased drag coefficient is offered to the consulting and/or forecasting communities, who are frequently without wave-modeling resources, as a pragmatic approach to approximate for waves. Hurricanes Charley, Frances, and Jeanne serve as the validation cases in which the increased wind drag coefficient was applied. Analysis was performed by inspection of maximum water-surface elevations, which are interpreted in terms of shelf and bay dynamics for the west coast hurricane cases (Charley and Ivan) and in terms of channel hydraulics for the east coast hurricane cases (Frances and Jeanne). We conclude that the broad shelf off Florida's west coast allows the storm tide to accumulate along the open coast and that the embayments further magnify the storm tide, and that the Atlantic Intracoastal Waterway along Florida's east coast is effective in propagating storm tide, where we show compartmentalization of the storm tide in the Indian River lagoon as caused by the flow impediment of the causeway abutments.

Landi, M.; Ricceri, C., and Angiolini, C., 2012. Evaluation of dune rehabilitation after 95 years by comparison of vegetation in disturbed and natural sites.

Disturbed and natural sites are compared in a belt of rehabilitated coastal dune on the Tyrrhenian coast of Italy. The goal was to evaluate rehabilitation success by comparing structure and plant composition in three different vegetation types. Vegetational attributes were used to indicate the trajectory of the vegetation dynamic, by recording increases or decreases in these parameters. The variations in attributes and similarities in composition were investigated using multivariate methods. In general, significant changes between the disturbed and natural sites were indicated by a decrease in annual graminoids, trees, and wind-dispersal species and an increase in rare species. In the rehabilitated site, there was a high rate of recruitment of wind-dispersal species, and rehabilitation seems to have been successful from the point of view of the decrease in annual graminoids and increase in rare species. However, each vegetation type of dune environment was associated with a different number of attributes and different rehabilitation success. Specifically: (i) open sands with annual vegetation growing along drift lines were the most similar among the three sites, from the point of view of both structure and species composition, and are therefore the easiest to rehabilitate; (ii) dunes partially or densely vegetated by herbaceous species showed an increase in rare species in the natural site and were characterized by successful rehabilitation; (iii) dunes densely vegetated by shrubs differed significantly between sites and are consequently the most difficult to rehabilitate. Our comparisons suggest that initial planning efforts should focus on this last type of vegetation cover.

Allan, J.C.; Komar, P.D.; Ruggiero, P., and Witter, R., 2012. The March 2011 Tōhoku tsunami and its impacts along the U.S. West Coast.

The March 11, 2011, magnitude 9, Tōhoku earthquake off the coast of Japan generated a tsunami that crossed the Pacific Ocean and impacted the shores of the U.S. West Coast. Analyses of the arrival times, wave heights, periods, and total water levels from the tsunami waves and the tides have been undertaken for 17 tide gauges along the length of the West Coast. Significant along-coast variations in wave heights were found, with the highest waves having been recorded at Crescent City (maximum height of 4.23 m) in northern California and in San Luis Obispo Bay (maximum 4.25 m) in southern California. It was concluded that similar to the Kuril Island tsunami in 2006, the particularly large wave heights that impacted the California–Oregon border region, including Crescent City, California, were the result of wave refraction that focused tsunami energy into a relatively narrow band as it crossed the ocean from Japan, followed by local shelf resonance that further enhanced the wave heights and determined the dominant wave periods recorded by tide gauges. Detailed analyses of the tsunami waves at Crescent City, California, and nearby at Port Orford, Oregon, documented the differences in their heights and periods and in the profiles of the maximum measured waves. The effects to developments along the coast varied in response to the local wave conditions, moderated by the largest waves having arrived during a low tide. Undoubtedly, damage to infrastructure would have been greater had the waves arrived a few hours earlier, at the time of the Higher High tide. The resulting damage occurred almost entirely within the harbors, brought about mainly by the strong to-and-fro currents that alternately filled and then emptied the boat basins, capsizing boats and damaging docks.

Buenfil-López, L.A.; Rebollar-Plata, M.; Muñoz-Sevilla, N.P., and Juárez-León, B., 2012. Sea-level rise and subsidence uplift processes in the Mexican South Pacific coast.

Along the Mexican South Pacific coast, seismic activity can generate a relative and instantaneous fall in sea-level with differential recovery times along the coast that, considering the occurrence of new coseismic coastal uplifts, can induce recurrent hydrodynamic behaviors. These behaviors could be important for coastal processes, such as tide inlet stability or beach erosion and accretion rates. To obtain a first approximation of this phenomenon, four tide gauge records were analyzed. Results showed a relative fall in sea-level at two tide gauge stations: Acapulco (25.3 cm) and Puerto Angel (14.6 cm). By applying derived sea-level trends, it was observed that the needed time to recover the mean sea level before the events occurred was 25.1 y for Acapulco and 82.9 y for Puerto Angel. If the apparent increment of global sea-level trends obtained from satellite altimetry is considered, recovery times could be reduced by 3.1 and 36.9 y for Acapulco and Puerto Angel, respectively. In Puerto Angel, this implies a significant reduction in the probability of the occurrence of a new coseismic uplift before the recovery of mean sea level. To make generalizations for the Mexican South Pacific coast, an auxiliary tool, the Recurrent Hydrodynamic Behavior Graph, was developed to facilitate analysis of the phenomenon and assist with decision making in coastal projects.

PAN, L.; DING, P., and GE, J., 2012. Impacts of Deep Waterway Project on morphological changes within the North Passage of the Changjiang Estuary, China.

Over the past decade, three phases of the Deep Waterway Project (DWP) have been carried out to deepen the shipping channel of the Changjiang Estuary, where a significant sandbar previously dominated. This project has produced significant hydrodynamic and morphological changes within the North Passage of the Changjiang Estuary. High-resolution and continuous seasonal bathymetric data from 1998 to 2008 provide good insight into sedimentation processes. These data reveal several significant characteristics: (1) During phase I, strong erosion occurred around the upper region, and the entrance, middle, and lower regions are under moderate deposition. The groin-blocked region had strong depositions. (2) The main-channel region shifted to erosion-dominant conditions during phase II. Erosion also occurred in the northern areas of the upper and middle regions. The entrance and southern areas of the upper and middle regions experienced deposition. (3) During phase III, the entrance region reached sedimentation equilibrium, and the northern area of the lower region experienced strong erosion. The southern areas of the middle and lower regions were under deposition. Domain-nesting Delft3D-flow model is applied to understand the mechanisms of the observed morphology and its changes induced by three phases of the DWP, which reveals that hydrodynamics intensify within the main-channel regions and decrease in the groin-blocked regions. These results are consistent with sedimentation patterns found. The simulations also show that dikes effectively keep the high suspended sediment concentration waters of Jiuduansha Shoal from entering the North Passage.

Lee, H.J. and Yoo, J., 2012. Macrotidal beach processes dominated by winter monsoon: Byunsan, west coast of Korea.

Macrotidal beaches are scattered in the west coast of Korea mostly in small embayments of the ria-type coastline and islands. In contrast to well-known tidal flats, these beaches have been little studied from the hydromorphologic viewpoint. Byunsan Beach was chosen to investigate beach processes affected by winter monsoon, which creates strong waves and wind-generated currents. The multiyear (2005–2008) profiling of the beach, together with the intensive sampling of surface sediments, provided the details of morphologic characteristics of the beach. Deep water winter wave characteristics were based on the measurements of an offshore buoy. A benthic tripod was deployed on the beach to observe waves, currents, and suspended sediments during a winter storm. The estimated morphodynamic parameters suggest that Byunsan Beach be classified as an ultradissipative state during winter. The tendency of grain size toward systematically fining seaward could be explained by the lateral displacements across the beach of swash and surf zones owing to a high tidal range. In addition, the tripod observations show that a storm readily generated offshore return flows capable of considerable beach erosion. The storm waves also significantly contributed to the erosion. This may reflect that the macrotidal, open beaches in the west coast of Korea are seasonally susceptible to pronounced erosion by winter monsoon. The results of this study may be useful for evaluating man-made environmental impacts caused largely by seawalls and dykes on the natural beach state intrinsic to the west coast of Korea.

Zhu, G.; Xu, X.; Ma, Z.; Xu, L., and Porter, J.H., 2012. Spatial dynamics and zoning of coastal land-use change along Bohai Bay, China during 1979-2008.

Research on land-use dynamics in coastal zones is important to environmental protection and regional sustainable development. The area involved in this study is the coastal zone of Bohai Bay, a new pole of economic growth in China. Landsat images from 1979, 1989, 1999, and 2008 are used to create land-use maps with seven first-class and 18 second-class types. A comprehensive approach, including a multidimensional transition matrix, land-use dynamic degree, and dynamic zoning based on an artificial neural network, is applied to investigate the evolution and spatial differentiation of land-use dynamics. Widespread changes in land use have occurred in the study area and accelerated between 1979 and 2008. Settlement and transportation land (i.e., land use for transportation) increased rapidly, while cultivated land and unused land suffered a noteworthy loss. These results reveal two key socioeconomic processes: urbanization and land reclamation from the sea. In this study, 20 primary land-use dynamics are calculated, and the study area is divided into 12 zones. According to the zoning map, there are three noteworthy transitions: unused land to saltwater body (primarily near the shore); unused land to transportation land (centered in the Tianjin New Port and Caofeidian Port); and cultivated land to settlement (mainly occurring in the northern and western parts of the study area). Urbanization, industrialization, land reclamation from the sea, port development, policies, and the structural adjustment of the primary industry all play a vital role in the land-use changes. Such changes should receive more attention from local authorities, who are expected to take immediate action to mitigate the impacts on the environment and implement land-use planning to achieve regionally sustainable development.

Madrid, E.N.; Armitage, A.R., and Quigg, A., 2012. The response of photosystem II to soil salinity and nutrients in wetland plant species of the Northwestern Gulf of Mexico.

The photosynthetic response of many wetland plant species to soil salinity and nutrients has been described in the laboratory, but less is known about the cumulative effect of these abiotic factors in the natural environment. In this investigation we correlated field measurements of chlorophyll fluorescence with simultaneous measurements of soil nitrogen and phosphorus content, soil salinity, and relative leaf nitrogen content in Spartina alterniflora (Loisel), Spartina patens ((Aiton) Muhl), Schoenoplectus californicus ((C.A. Mey.) Steud.) and Schoenoplectus robustus ((Pursh) M.T. Strong), common in brackish and salt marshes of the northwestern Gulf of Mexico. The relationship between chlorophyll fluorescence and soil N ∶ P ratio was not significant in S. alterniflora, nonlinear in S. patens and S. robustus, and significant and positive in S. californicus. The relationship between leaf nitrogen content and effective quantum yield was significant and positive in S. alterniflora and S. robustus, but only S. alterniflora appeared to be able to increase relative leaf nitrogen content over a wide range of soil nutrient and salinity regimes. Schoenoplectus californicus had the greatest potential for photosynthetic light capture but also had the narrowest ecological distribution. Thus, the species best adapted to high levels of abiotic stress (S. alterniflora) was less dominant at lower salinities, and the species with the highest potential for photosynthetic performance (S. robustus and S. californicus) were only found in locations with favorable abiotic conditions. We found that the range of environmental conditions experienced by each species in the field is greater than what has been considered in laboratory investigations.

Zhang, S.; Xie, L; Cao, R., and Zhao, H., 2012. Observation of upper ocean mixing in the region west of the Luzon Strait in spring.

The west Luzon Strait is a hot spot where water and energy exchange is strongly influenced by the westward intrusion of Kuroshio water. Shipboard observations carried out during spring 2010 quantify the upper-ocean mixing in the region west of the Luzon Strait. The observations indicate that strong turbulent mixing occurs in the upper 300 m near the Luzon Strait, where turbulent kinetic energy dissipation rates increase to magnitude of about O(10⁻⁶ W kg⁻¹) and turbulent eddy diffusivity reaches O(10⁻² m² s⁻¹). This enhanced mixing is plausibly associated with shear instability of the Kuroshio intrusion. As important as the internal tides and wind forcing emphasized in the classical paradigm, our observation implies also that an unstable current such as the Kuroshio intrusion may be an energy source for enhanced ocean mixing. The dependency further shows that dissipation rates increase with increasing shear and decrease with increasing stratification in the observation region.

Mbuh, M.J.; Mayer, R.É., and Paul, T., 2012. Assessment of the nature and the rate of coastal erosion on the Mount Cameroon coastal landscape, Southwest Region, Cameroon.

The Mount Cameroon coastline is believed to be affected by two main morphological, dynamic, environmental problems: the erosion of the Atlantic slopes of the mountains and hills, and the accumulation of sediments on the continental platform. Erosion affects the coastal slopes, as evidenced by the existence of erosion domes observed both on the Atlantic slopes and the coastlines. Three factors explain the deterioration of the Cameroon coastline: (1) its location with a vulnerable region known as the Cameroon Line, (2) the persistent impact of climate and oceanographic conditions, and (3) the topographic nature of the region. A high percentage of this coastal area's water infiltrates the soil, weathering the pyroclastic material. Concentrated human population in the area accelerates some of the erosional processes. In fact, human activity could be the primary cause of the degradation; nevertheless, natural-erosion processes remain prominent in the ongoing degradation of this fragile environment.

The dynamics of waves and tides alter Mount Cameroon coastal features. The intensity of those waves and tides vary from place to place. The Mabeta mangrove and the surrounding coastal creeks experience a high rate of sedimentation. The area between Man O' War Bay and Mabeta experiences intense weathering because the rocks are old. The area between Limbe and Batoke experiences a high rate of erosion caused primarily by wave action because of the poor erosive action of the few rivers. The high erosion could provide sediments to stabilise the coastline; however, the sediments do not finish their progression to the sea. Therefore, coastal development depends mainly on the coastal current, fluvial discharge, and high rainfall in Debundscha. Tectonic variability associated with landslides also represents a significant natural hazard in this complex environment.

Dadhich, A.P., and Nadaoka, K., 2012. Analysis of terrestrial discharge from agricultural watersheds and its impact on nearshore and offshore reefs in Fiji.

The coral reef ecosystems are rapidly deteriorating due to intense anthropogenic perturbations in the river basins in northwest Viti Levu Island, Fiji. This study aimed to assess the change in benthic cover as influenced by terrestrial loadings from the 14 adjoining agriculturally dominated (especially sugarcane) coastal watersheds using remote sensing, a geographic information system (GIS), and a physically based, distributed hydrological model. An integrated modeling framework with land-use change was constructed to simulate the runoff, sediment yield, and nutrient discharge using the Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) model. The impact of terrestrial discharge on the coastal ecosystem was investigated by spatio-temporal analysis (1992–2007) of the benthic cover using Landsat TM/ETM data. Due to the cropland expansion, a significant amount of surface runoff and sediment and nutrient discharge was generated during 1992–2007 from the steeply sloping watersheds. The hydrological response results from areas with different land-use conditions (1992–2007) revealed that the conversion of forestland (7.88%) and shrubland (7.59%) into agricultural (10.04%) and barren land (3.06%) had the greatest impact on the potential risk of surface runoff. To understand the discharge behavior of the watersheds and its impact on coastal ecosystems, we examined three hydrological response assessment indices, namely, the annual average, wet season average, and monthly maximum index. A change in the benthic community composition was observed as an increase in algae (139.3%), sea grass (70.6%), and degraded reef area (59.39%) around these coastal watersheds due to the increased sediments and nutrients, mainly from the sugarcane fields.

Liu, Y.; Wang, Y.P.; Li, Y.; Gao, J.; Jia, J.; Xia, X., and Gao, S., 2012. Coastal embayment long-term erosion/siltation associated with P-A relationships: A case study from Jiaozhou Bay, China.

The sedimentary environment of a large coastal embayment, Jiaozhou Bay, eastern China, in terms of erosion/siltation, has been assessed on the basis of seabed bathymetry and coastline data sets from sea charts (1936–2002) and Landsat-5 TM images (1986–2011). Nine types of sedimentary environment are identified according to the sedimentation rate. The results indicate that slow siltation was generally present from 1936 to 1963, with exceptions of some patchy, slightly eroding areas within the embayment. Transformation to a slow erosion pattern occurred in the main channels over the central embayment in 1963, and such a situation continued until 1982. Subsequently, since 1986, most of the coastlines extended toward the sea at a rate of 10¹–10² m y⁻¹; this was mainly attributable to human activities, including reclamation over the NW tidal-flat and harbour construction along the east and south coastlines. Using the same data set, patterns of changes in tidal prism and deposition rate within the entrance channel were established. An equivalent friction coefficient (K) is proposed to evaluate the P-A relationship of the large tidal inlets in Jiaozhou Bay. The K value increases gradually over time, indicating a trend toward stable equilibrium in Jiaozhou Bay. This coefficient can be used to examine the status of morphological stability and equilibrium of coastal embayments.

Browne, N.K.; Smithers, S.G.; Perry, C.T., and Ridd, P.V., 2012. A field-based technique for measuring sediment flux on coral reefs: application to turbid reefs on the Great Barrier Reef.

Inshore turbid reefs on the Great Barrier Reef (GBR) are exposed to high and fluctuating sediment loads normally associated with poor reef growth, but many have high coral cover (>30%) and diversity (>50 species). Previous assessments of sediment regimes on these reefs have largely relied on sediment trap data, which overestimate sedimentation rates and may not accurately reflect sedimentary conditions. A new approach, based on paired sediment trays, is described here that allows the sedimentation rate, sediment resuspension, and total mass of mobile sediments transported on to and off of a site per unit time and area (termed the two-way total sediment flux) to be measured or calculated. The sediment trays were deployed on Middle Reef and Paluma Shoals, two inshore turbid reefs on the GBR where the two-way total sediment flux ranged from 34 g/m²/d in protected reef habitats to more than 640 g/m²/d in higher-energy settings. Mean sedimentation rates, calculated using data from four sites across these reefs, of less than 122 g/m²/d are considerably lower than published rates estimated for nearby coral reefs, largely because sediment traps limit sediment resuspension. At each tray installation, sediments were collected every 4 to 6 weeks to measure variations in net sedimentation through the year, and resuspension rates were calculated by comparing 100 g of preanalysed sediments placed on trays at deployment to sediments recovered 2 weeks later. These data demonstrate that despite high sediment delivery rates, net sedimentation may still be relatively low and potentially less of a threat to benthic communities on turbid reefs than previously assumed. Sediment trays provide a comprehensive assessment of sediment regimes that, together with ecological assessments of coral cover, improve our understanding of the sedimentary pressures affecting inshore turbid reefs and their ability to tolerate sedimentation.

Aly, M.H.; Giardino, J.R.; Klein, A.G., and Zebker, H.A., 2012. InSAR study of shoreline change along the Damietta Promontory, Egypt.

Shoreline erosion has been a major problem in the Nile Delta since the full damming of the Nile River in 1970, especially along the two Nile promontories (Rosetta and Damietta). Synthetic aperture radar interferometric (InSAR) data acquired by the European remote-sensing satellites (ERS-1 and ERS-2), spanning 1993–2000, were utilized in this study to (1) identify the erosion/accretion pattern along the Damietta Promontory shoreline, (2) monitor the evolution of the accretionary spit on the E side of the promontory, and (3) investigate the effect of protective structures established in multiple stages since 1991. The tandem coherence of InSAR was found to be a powerful tool for delineating the water/land boundary with very high precision. Four locations along the promontory shoreline experienced substantial erosion, with average rates of −9, −39, −17, and −11 m yr⁻¹. Local accretion occurred at the W and E flanks of the promontory, with average rates of 12 and 36 m yr⁻¹, respectively. The sandy spit increased in width by about 36 m yr⁻¹ and migrated laterally to the SE at an average rate of 120 m yr⁻¹. Shoreline instability during 1993–2000 implies that the established defensive structures have not been sufficient to cease erosion completely. As the promontory shoreline has not been armored with further protection since 2000, the identified erosional locations at the promontory flanks still require protection and monitoring to help mitigate the impact of shoreline retreat and its environmental consequences.

Chen, J.M.; Liang, D., and Tang, H., 2012. Interaction between tsunami waves and isolated conical islands.

A newly developed computer model, which solves the horizontal two-dimensional Boussinesq equations using a total variation diminishing Lax-Wendroff scheme, has been used to study the runup of solitary waves, with various heights, on idealized conical islands consisting of side slopes of different angles. This numerical model has first been validated against high-quality laboratory measurements of solitary wave runups on a uniform plane slope and on an isoliated conical island, with satisfactory agreement being achieved. An extensive parametric study concerning the effects of the wave height and island slope on the solitary wave runup has subsequently been carried out. Strong wave shoaling and diffraction effects have been observed for all the cases investigated. The relationship between the runup height and wave height has been obtained and compared with that for the case on uniform plane slopes. It has been found that the runup on a conical island is generally lower than that on a uniform plane slope, as a result of the two-dimensional effect. The correlation between the runup with the side slope of an island has also been identified, with higher runups on milder slopes. This comprehensive study on the soliton runup on islands is relevant to the protection of coastal and inland regions from extreme wave attacks.

Zhang, J.; Wang, P., and Hughes, J., 2012. EOF analysis of water level variations for microtidal and mangrove-covered Frog Creek system, west-central Florida.

At present, little is known about the mechanisms that control water level variations for the Frog Creek system, west–central Florida, which is a mangrove-covered, microtidal, shallow estuary. Although connected with open waters, topographic and roughness constraints can alter expected variability of water levels in this area. Water level variations are especially important for the Frog Creek system, because the increases or decreases in subtidal water level change the present tidal environments. In this paper, 1-year measurements of water levels were examined using the empirical orthogonal function (EOF) method. Water level data from eight stations were first filtered by employing a Lancz6-squared filter because of its ability to eliminate diurnal tidal signals while inducing minimal attenuation in variations with periods of 2 to 3 days, which are usually caused by wind. The filtered water levels were then analyzed using the EOF method to determine relative contributions of various forcing factors. The first three EOF modes explained 64.13%, 33.25%, and 1.55% of total variances and were interpreted by calculating correlation coefficients and coherences. We attributed EOF mode 1 to the variations of coastal subtidal water levels introduced by physical processes with longer periods, such as spring-neap tidal variability and seasonal freshwater river discharge variability. Next, EOF mode 2 was related to the effects of the local N-S wind component, which introduces short-timescale variations of the subtidal water level with typical periods ranging from 2 to 6 days. The effect of river discharge on water level was captured by EOF mode 3. Overall, EOF analysis provides an insightful tool to examine water level disturbances.

Anderson, M.G.; Judd, C., and Marcoe, K., 2012. Rapid characterization of shorelines using a georeferenced video mapping system.

Mapping shoreline resources is crucial for coastal planning, yet current approaches are limited in ability to characterize remote areas or detect small features. Documentation using video mapping may provide a rapid and repeatable method for assessing the current state of the environment and determining changes to the shoreline over time. In this publication, we compare two studies using boat-based, georeferenced video mapping in coastal Washington and the Columbia River Estuary to map and characterize coastal stressors and shoreline condition. The coastal Washington study in Clallam County was completed in 1 day and covered a distance of 70 km, whereas the Columbia River Estuary study was conducted over a 10-day period and covered 1030 km. In both areas, multiple features were mapped along the shoreline. The position and orientation of the camera allowed for characterization of vertically oriented features such as shoreline armoring, and smaller features such as pilings and large woody debris. These types of features could not be consistently detected using traditional aerial photo interpretation. In addition, end users noted that the georeferenced video provides a permanent record to allow a user to examine recorded video anywhere along the boat transect.

Vinhateiro, N.; Sullivan, K.A., and Mcnally, C.G., 2012. Training for the next generation of coastal management practitioners.

The complex and interconnected problems facing the world's coastal zones require solutions that bridge science and policy and integrate a range of stakeholder perspectives. The next generation of coastal practitioners will therefore need a wide-ranging set of problem-solving skills and the ability to collaborate across disciplines. As graduates of the Coastal Institute Integrative Graduate Education and Research Traineeship (IGERT) Project at the University of Rhode Island, we were participants in a multidisciplinary curriculum for students interested in the complex issues of coastal ecosystem management. Here we discuss aspects of the curriculum that were transformative from a graduate student perspective, as well as aspects that presented challenges. Fundamentally, the training provided us: (i) the opportunity to gain multidisciplinary knowledge working with a broad network of colleagues and mentors outside of our disciplinary backgrounds; (ii) communication and leadership training for coastal conflict management; and (iii) experiential learning opportunities that allowed us to apply these skills and knowledge at the science/policy interface. These three important features of our training could be implemented at any academic institution. While the training challenged us to balance the demands of our respective programs with additional work, it is our strong opinion that the benefits of such training considerably outweigh the costs.

Chen, J.; Huang, Z.H.; Jiang, C.B.; Deng, B., and Long, Y.N., 2012. An experimental study of changes of beach profile and mean grain size caused by tsunami-like waves.

Devastating tsunami waves can mobilize a substantial amount of coastal sediments and change the coastal morphology considerably. In this study, laboratory experiments were performed in a wave flume to investigate the changes of beach profile and mean grain size caused by tsunami-like waves that have a front similar to that of a solitary wave and an undulating tail following the wave front. A composite slope was constructed using a mixture of two sizes of sand. In addition to recording the wave rush-up and rush-down processes using video cameras, measurements were also made on water surface elevation, bed profile and the final size distribution of the sand mixture for three water depths. The results showed that sand suspension and erosion were caused mainly by sheet flows when water retreats from the beach, whereas the offshore sandbars, composed mainly of coarser sand, formed mainly from the run-down jumps caused by the collapsing of retreating water with waves in the undulating tail. The findings of this study have the potential to assist researchers in understanding nearshore tsunami flows from tsunami deposits.