Codling moth, Cydia pomonella L., is a cosmopolitan pest of pome and stone fruits. It has been identified as a quarantine pest of concern in a number of countries where it is not known to occur, most of them tropical or subtropical countries. Although considerable work has been done on the basic biology and physiology of this temperate pest, little is known on its potential to develop and establish in tropical environments with short photoperiods and few to no days below 10°C. Apples were harvested over three field seasons (2007–2009) from unmanaged orchards in central Washington State and subjected to simulated commercial cold storage at 1.1 ± 2°C for up to 119 d. After cold storage, infested fruits were held at 20°C under a 12:12 L:D photoperiod for up to 6 mo. Over the entire experiment only 27% of the larvae collected exited the fruit and cocooned. Of those 27%, only 1.06% of larvae held under a 12:12 L:D photoperiod successfully emerged as moths. No moths emerged when host fruit would be available in a representative importing country in the tropics over the 3 yr of testing. These results indicate that codling moth in apples from the Pacific Northwest pose little threat of surviving and establishing in tropical regions where daylength is insufficient to break diapause and the chilling requirement is not met.

We evaluated a year-long treatment regime testing synthetic, 10-component, honey bee, Apis mellifera L. (Hymenoptera: Apidae), brood pheromone (SuperBoost; Contech Enterprises Inc., Delta, BC, Canada) on the productivity and vigor of package bee colonies in the lower Fraser Valley of British Columbia, Canada. Fifty-eight newlyestablished 1.3-kg (3-lb) colonies treated three times with SuperBoost at 5-wk intervals starting 30 April 2009 were compared with 52 untreated control colonies. Treated colonies produced 84.3% more honey than untreated control colonies. By 8 September 2009, SuperBoost-treated colonies had 35.4% more adults than untreated colonies. By 28 September, net survival of treated and control colonies was 72.4 and 67.3%, respectively. On 5 October, treated and control colonies were divided into two additional groups, making up four cohorts: SuperBoost-treated colonies treated again during fall and spring build-up feeding with pollen substitute diet (BeePro, Mann Lake Ltd., Hackensack, MN; TTT); controls that remained untreated throughout the year (CCC) ; colonies treated with SuperBoost in spring—summer 2009 but not treated thereafter (TCC); and original control colonies treated with SuperBoost during the fall and spring build-up feeding periods (CTT). There was no difference among cohorts in consumption of BeePro during fall feeding, but TTT colonies (including daughter colonies split off from parent colonies) consumed 50.8% more diet than CCC colonies during spring build-up feeding. By 21 April, the normalized percentages of the original number of colonies remaining (dead colonies partially offset by splits) were as follows: CCC, 31.4%; CTT, 43.8%; TCC, 53.59%; and TTT, 80.0%. The net benefit of placing 100 newly established package bee colonies on a year-long six-treatment regime with SuperBoost would be US$6,202 (US$62.02 per colony). We conclude that treatment with SuperBoost enhanced the productivity and survival of package bee colonies and hypothesize that similar results could be achieved with established colonies.

Two types of honey bees, Apis mellifera L. (Hymenoptera: Apidae), bred for resistance to Varroa destructor Anderson & Trueman were evaluated for performance when used in migratory crop pollination. Colonies of Russian honey bees (RHB) and outcrossed bees with Varroa-sensitive hygiene (VSH) were managed without miticide treatments and compared with colonies of Italian honey bees that served as controls. Control colonies were managed as groups which either were treated twice each year against V. destructor (CT) or kept untreated (CU). Totals of 240 and 247 colonies were established initially for trials in 2008 and 2009, respectively. RHB and VSH colonies generally had adult and brood populations similar to those of the standard CT group regarding pollination requirements. For pollination of almonds [Prunus dulcis (Mill.) D.A.Webb] in February, percentages of colonies meeting the required six or more frames of adult bees were 57% (VSH), 56% (CT), 39% (RHB), and 34% (CU). RHB are known to have small colonies in early spring, but this can be overcome with appropriate feeding. For later pollination requirements in May to July, 94–100% of colonies in the four groups met pollination size requirements for apples (Malus domestica Borkh.), cranberries (Vaccinium macrocarpon Aiton), and lowbush blueberries (Vaccinium angustifolium Aiton). Infestations with V. destructor usually were lowest in CT colonies and tended to be lower in VSH colonies than in RHB and CU colonies. This study demonstrates that bees with the VSH trait and pure RHB offer alternatives for beekeepers to use for commercial crop pollination while reducing reliance on miticides. The high frequency of queen loss (only approximately one fourth of original queens survived each year) suggests that frequent requeening is necessary to maintain desired genetics.

In the current study, incidence of ‘Candidatus Phytoplasma mali’ in an experimental apple orchard in northeast Italy, in addition to abundance and phytoplasma infectivity of Cacopsylla melanoneura (Förster) (Hemiptera: Psyllidae) was determined and the role of this psyllid as a vector of ‘Ca. P. mali’ in this region was reviewed. Insect samples collected in the orchard by the beating method indicated high abundance of C. melanoneura (up to 7.92 specimens/branch); however, the psyllid C. picta was not observed. Molecular analyses revealed presence of ‘Ca. P. mali’ in 6.25% of overwintered psyllids. This infection rate is quite high in comparison to other localities where C. melanoneura is known as the main vector of the phytoplasma. This finding supports the assumption that C. melanoneura also is paramount in the epidemiology of the apple proliferation disease also in northeast Italy. Moreover, we correlated immigration dynamics to the temperatures registered in the apple orchard, and defined an immigration index to predict the progressive arrival of the overwintered adults from winter sites. Psyllids start to reach the apple orchards when either the average of the maximum temperature of the 7 d is above 9.5°C or the immigration index has a positive value. This index will be a useful tool for the growers to prevent apple proliferation phytoplasma spread with well-timed insecticide treatments targeted against C. melanoneura. However, further research is needed to validate or adjust the index to other apple growing regions, which may affect more efficacious management of this disease and psyllid vector.

Huanglongbing (HLB) is a severe citrus (Citrus spp.) disease associated with the bacteria genus Candidatus Liberibacter, detected in Brazil in 2004. Another bacterium was found in association with HLB symptoms and characterized as a phytoplasma belonging to the 16SrIX group. The objectives of this study were to identify potential leafhopper vectors of the HLB-associated phytoplasma and their host plants. Leafhoppers were sampled every other week for 12 mo with sticky yellow cards placed at two heights (0.3 and 1.5 m) in the citrus tree canopy and by using a sweep net in the ground vegetation of two sweet orange, Citrus sinensis (L.) Osbeck, groves infected by the HLB-phytoplasma in São Paulo state. Faunistic analyses indicated one Agalliinae (Agallia albidula Uhler) and three Deltocephalinae [Balclutha hebe (Kirkaldy), Planicephalus flavicosta (Stål), and Scaphytopius (Convelinus) marginelineatus (Stål)] species, as the most abundant and frequent leafhoppers (Hemiptera: Cicadellidae). Visual observations indicated an association of leafhopper species with some weeds and the influence of weed species composition on leafhopper abundance in low-lying vegetation. S. marginelineatus and P. flavicosta were more frequent on Sida rhombifolia L. and Althernantera tenella Colla, respectively, whereas A. albidula was observed more often on Conyza bonariensis (L.) Cronq. and B. hebe only occurred on grasses. DNA samples of field-collected S. marginelineatus were positive by polymerase chain reaction and sequencing tests for the presence of the HLB-phytoplasma group, indicating it as a potential vector. The association of leafhoppers with their hosts may be used in deciding which management strategies to adopt against weeds and diseases in citrus orchards.

Tamarixia radiata (Waterston, 1922) is the main parasitoid of Diaphorina citri (Kuwayama, 1907), and has been used in classical biological control programs in several countries. The current study investigated the biology and determined the fertility life table of T. radiata in different temperatures, to obtain information to support the establishment of a biological control program for D. citri in Brazil. Fifth-instar nymphs of D. citri were offered to females of T. radiata for parasitism, for 24 h. Then, the parasitoid was removed and the nymphs were placed in incubators at 15, 20, 25, 30, or 35 ± 1°C, 70 ± 10% RH, and a 14-h photophase. The percentages of parasitism and emergence, the sex ratio, and the preimaginal period of T. radiata were determined. The fertility life table was developed from the biological data. The highest parasitism rate (77.24%) was obtained at a temperature of 26.3°C, and the lowest parasitism rates occurred at 15 and 35°C (23.1 and 40.2%, respectively). The highest percentages of emergence of the parasitoid occurred at 25, 30, and 35°C (86.7, 88.3, and 78.8%, respectively), with the calculated peak at 30.8°C (89.90%). The duration of the preimaginal developmental period for both females and males of T. radiata was inversely proportional to temperature in the thermal range of 15–35°C. The development of T. radiata occurred at all temperatures studied, and the highest viability of the preimaginal period occurred at 25°C. The highest values of net reproductive rate and finite growth ratio (λ) were observed at 25°C, so that in each generation the population of T. radiata increased 126.79 times, higher than the values obtained at the other temperatures.

The activity of three geographic isolates of the gypsy moth nucleopolyhedrovirus (LdMNPV) was evaluated in field trials against larvae of the Chinese population of Lymantria dispar asiatica Vnukovskij in Inner Mongolia, People's Republic of China, in 2004, 2005, and 2006. Although the Chinese isolate of the virus, LdMNPV-H, was the most pathogenic of the isolates tested, having the lowest mean lethal concentration causing 50% and 95% larval mortality, the increase in efficacy that would be obtained by incorporating this isolate into a commercial product does not justify the time or expense required to register it for use in the United States or Canada. The commercially available North American isolate, LdMNPV-D, was moderately pathogenic, whereas the Japanese isolate, LdMNPV-J, was the least pathogenic. The slopes of the dose—response regression lines for the three virus isolates indicated that the Chinese gypsy moth larvae were more homogenously susceptible to LdMNPV-H and LdMNPV-D than to LdMNPV-J. Time-response data showed that LdMNPV-J was significantly more virulent, but at a much higher dose, than the other two isolates, causing 50% mortality in the shortest time, followed by LdMNPV-H and LdMNPV-D. Rainfall immediately after the application of LdMNPV-D in 2005 resulted in significantly reduced gypsy moth larval mortality.

In the laboratory and in cages in the greenhouse, we evaluated the toxicity of two insecticides (lambda-cyhalothrin and spinosad) on the parasitoid, Diadegma insulare (Cresson), and the predator, Coleomegilla maculate (DeGeer), both natural enemies of the diamondback moth, Plutella xylostella (L.). Lambda-cyhalothrin was very toxic to both natural enemies. Spinosad was less toxic to C. maculata adults and larvae, and slightly toxic to D. insulare. Both natural enemies suppressed P. xylostella populations in cages with 80% spinosad-treated and 20% nontreated plants; such suppression was not seen when lambda-cyhalothrin was used. Using broccoli, Brassica oleracea L. variety italica, a common host for P. xylostella, we also studied direct and indirect effects of both natural enemies in the presence and absence of the two insecticides and to different P. xylostella genotypes: resistant to the insecticide, susceptible, or heterozygous. Neither natural enemy could distinguish host genotype if P. xylostella were feeding on nontreated plants. They could also not distinguish between larvae feeding on spinosad-treated plants and nontreated plants, but D. insulare could distinguish between larvae feeding on lambda-cyhalothrin treated and nontreated plants. Our studies suggest that lambda-cyhalothrin has direct toxicity to these two natural enemies, can affect their host foraging and acceptance of P. xylostella and consequently would not be compatible in conserving these natural enemies in a program for suppression of P. xylostella. In contrast, our studies suggest that treatment with spinosad has much less effect on these natural enemies and would allow them to help suppress populations of P. xylostella. These findings are discussed in relation to the evolution of insecticide resistance and suppression of the pest populations.

Host status for Mexican fruit fly (Anastrepha ludens (Loew)) was examined under laboratory conditions in cage infested Eureka and Meyer lemons. Our approach was to allow females to oviposit on the two cultivars in separate laboratory cages with aluminum foil covering to restrict the areas where females had access to fruit surface. Fruit of each cultivar were placed in covered trays for incubations and at approximately weekly intervals, fruit were removed, dissected, and live and dead eggs and larvae tabulated in each tissue of the fruit. Infestation and survival were tabulated and analyzed for the effects of harvest date, fruit color and brix indices, postoviposition period, and cultivar. Infestation rate, determined by counts of total eggs and larvae was significantly higher in Meyer lemons. In both cultivars, females deposited eggs into both albedo and pulp tissue but not into flavedo. Both cultivars showed high resistance (>90% mortality) to egg and first instars survival in albedo and pulp. Second and third instars surviving in the pulp had high survival rates (>60%) in both cultivars in fruit dissected at weeks 2–4 after infestation. Total adults produced were slightly higher, and total second and third stage larvae were also higher for Meyer lemons. Numbers of adults and total second and third stage larvae increased in Eureka lemons in more mature fruit, but the higher numbers in Meyer lemons were not associated with fruit maturity, at time of infestation. Numbers of second and third stage larvae were significantly correlated with some fruit color indices in Eureka but not in Meyer lemons. Application of these results to quarantine risk analysis is discussed.

This study shows that the fruit fly, Ceratitis rosa (Karsch), has a significantly longer life span than the medfly, C. capitata (Wiedemann); the species used as a model organism for the demographics of insect aging. This was somewhat surprising given that both have similar distributions and overlapping niches. We postulate that the greater longevity of C. rosa is related to the fact that it can occupy colder habitats where the availability of suitable host plants may be very unpredictable in both time and space.

A large number of biodegradable byproducts including alcohols, soluble saccharides, volatile organic acids, and amines accumulate in the liquid fraction (leachate) produced as vegetal and food scrap waste decomposes. Untreated leachate, because it is rich in nutrients and organic byproducts, has a high chemical oxygen demand and is normally cleared of soluble organic byproducts by mineralization before its discharge into waterways. Mineralizing leachates using chemical and microbial biotechnologies is, however, a lengthy and costly process. We report here that the larvae of the black soldier fly Hermetia illucens (L.) (Diptera: Stratiomyidae), an insect rich in protein and lipids, and having significant commercial value, while feeding and growing off of compost leachate, lowers its chemical oxygen demand relative to that of leachate unexposed to larvae, neutralizes its acidity, and clears it of volatile organic acids, amines, and alcohols. These observations demonstrate that black soldier fly larvae could be used to help offset the cost and clean up of organic solutes in leachate waste streams while recycling carbon, nitrogen, and phosphate into usable and commercially valuable biomass.

Thirty-four essential oils were screened for their repellent activities against the twospotted spider mite, Tetranychus urticae Koch (Acarina: Tetranychidae), at 0.1% concentration level using choice and no-choice laboratory bioassays. Of these, 20 essential oils showed significant repellencies against T. urticae in the choice tests. In subsequent no-choice tests using these 20 essential oils, only sandalwood oil showed significant repellency against T. urticae. Total number of eggs oviposited by T. urticae was significantly lower than controls in the choice tests when the kidney bean leaves were treated with 1 of 14 essential oils. The significant repellency of sandalwood oil against T. urticae lasted at least for 5 h at the 0.1% concentration level. Our GC-MS analysis indicated that the major components of the sandalwood oil were α-santalol (45.8%), β-santalol (20.6%), β-sinensal (9.4%), and epi-β-santalol (3.3%). Santanol, a mixture of the two main components in the sandalwood oil, appears to be responsible for the repellency of sandalwood oil against T. urticae.

We studied how the behavior and performance of Pseudacteon tricuspis Borgmeier varies with the social form of its host Solenopsis invicta Buren, in its native range in Argentina where monogyne colonies are more abundant than polygynes (≈75 vs. 25%). Female, P. tricuspis took 44% less time (50 vs. 89 s) to attack monogyne than polygyne ants, but oviposition attempts were similar (23 vs. 18 attacks). The presence of the parasitoid affected the average size of foragers on the trail, with the proportion of minor workers increasing on both social forms. In the laboratory, P. tricuspis selected similar host sizes, although pupal survival was 25% higher on monogynes than on polygynes. Developmental times of both genders were similar (33–35 d), although larger females emerged from bigger hosts. The sex ratio of P. tricuspis was more male biased when exploiting polygyne ants. Intraspecific competition significantly affected parasitoid reproductive success, being significantly higher for a solitary female than when three females were present, although the size of workers selected did not vary. The male:female ratio also changed, being 1:1 without competition but 2:1 with competition. We demonstrated for the first time the consequences of interference competition among P. tricuspis females, a common behavior observed in others parasitoids. We discuss why P. tricuspis sex ratios are always biased toward males in both social forms and suggest that similar studies of interference competition within and between already naturalized Pseudacteon species in the United States could help predict establishment patterns.

Fluon PTFE is a fluoropolymer dispersion applied as a surface conditioner to cross-vane panel traps to enhance trap efficiency for cerambycid beetles. We describe the results of three experiments to further optimize cerambycid traps of different designs and to test the effect of Fluon over time. We tested Fluon with Lindgren funnel and panel traps fitted with either wet or dry collection cups on catches of cerambycid beetles and how the effect of Fluon on panel traps persisted. Fluon-treated funnel traps with wet collection cups captured ≈6× more beetles than the untreated funnel traps with wet collection cups. Untreated funnel traps with dry collection cups did not capture any beetles; however, Fluon-treated funnel traps with dry collection cups captured an average of four beetles per trap. Fluon-treated panel traps with wet collection cups captured ≈9× more beetles than untreated panel traps with wet collection cups. Fluon-treated panel traps with dry collection cups captured ≈11× more beetles than untreated panel traps with dry collection cups. The effect of Fluon on capturing cerambycid beetles did not decline after use in one or two field seasons. There was no significant difference in the number of beetles captured in freshly treated panel traps compared with traps that had been used for 1 or 2 yr. Fluon-treated traps captured nine species that were not captured in untreated traps. Conditioning both Lindgren funnel and panel traps with Fluon enhances the efficacy and sensitivity of traps deployed to detect exotic cerambycid species, or for monitoring threatened species at low population densities.

Surveys for Stenoma catenifer Walsingham, the avocado seed moth, and its associated larval parasitoids were conducted in the Departments of Junín, Huánuco, Cusco, and Madre de Dios in Perú. Fruit infestation levels in some areas ranged from 0 to 58%, and parasitism of S. catenifer larvae in Junín and Huánuco was 23%. Five species of hymenopteran parasitoid in two families, Braconidae (Apanteles sp., Hypomicrogaster sp., and Chelonus sp.) and Ichneumonidae (Pristeromerus sp. and Xiphosomella sp.), were reared from larvae, and one species of tachinid fly (Chrysodoria sp.) emerged from pupae. The dominant larval parasitoid, a gregarious Apanteles sp., accounted for 55% of parasitized hosts. Branch and twig tunneling by S. catenifer larvae in a commercial Hass avocado orchard was observed in Cusco. The field attractiveness of the sex pheromone of S. catenifer was demonstrated with 73% of monitoring traps deployed in three departments (Junín, Huánuco, and Cusco) catching male moths. Approximately 55% of avocado fruit sourced from the Province of Chanchamayo (Junín) and purchased at the Mercado Modelo de Frutas in La Victoria, in central Lima were infested with larvae of S. catenifer. Infested avocado fruit sold at this market could represent a potential incursion threat to coastal Hass avocado production regions in Perú that are reportedly free of this pest.

The navel orangeworm, Amyelois transitella (Walker) (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae), is the most destructive lepidopteran pest of almonds [Prunus dulcis (Mill.) D.A.Webb] and pistachios (Pistacia vera L.) in California and is a serious problem in figs (Ficus carica L.) and walnuts (Juglans spp.). In addition to direct damage, larval feeding leaves nuts vulnerable to infection by Aspergillus spp., fungi that produce toxic aflatoxins. A potentially safe and sustainable approach for managing navel orangeworm in orchards may be to use natural essential oil synergists to interfere with this insect's ability to detoxify insecticides and phytochemicals. We tested the effects of a naturally occurring plant-derived chemical, myristicin, and a synthetic inhibitor of cytochrome P450 monooxygenases (P450s), piperonyl butoxide, on the toxicity of three insecticides (α-cypermethrin, τ-fluvalinate, and methoxyfenozide [Intrepid]) and a phytochemical (xanthotoxin) to A. transitella. Piperonyl butoxide significantly synergized α-cypermethrin and τ-fluvalinate, whereas myristicin synergized only α-cypermethrin. Piperonyl butoxide synergized the toxicity of xanthotoxin as early as 72 h after exposure, whereas myristicin synergized xanthotoxin after 120 h. In view of these findings and the limited availability of environmentally safe synthetic insecticides for sustainable management, particularly in organic orchards, myristicin is a potential field treatment in combination with insecticides to reduce both navel orangeworm survival and aflatoxin contamination of nuts. In addition, this study demonstrates that in A. transitella the insect growth regulator methoxyfenozide is not detoxified by P450s.

Fall armyworm is a major economic pest throughout the Western Hemisphere. Previous studies of populations in the southern United States, Brazil, and the Caribbean demonstrated the existence of two morphologically identical but genetically distinct host strains that can only be distinguished using genetic markers, including polymorphisms in the mitochondrial Cytochrome Oxidase I (COI) gene and in the Z-chromosome linked Triose phosphate isomerase (Tpi) gene. The strains differ in some physiological and behavioral characteristics, most notably their preference for different plant hosts, but are capable of hybridizing in the laboratory and in the field. These traits suggest that the strains are in the process of divergence, which may or may not be hemispheric in scope. The objective of this study was to determine whether the two strains are present in Argentina. It was found that the strain-diagnostic haplotypes of the COI and Tpi genes subdivided the Argentina population into two major groups. Each group displayed biases in their distribution among different host plants that were generally consistent with expected strain behavior. The overall results indicated that Argentina fall armyworm exhibit similar genetics and behavior to populations in the rest of the hemisphere. In addition, the Argentina populations had comparable haplotype frequencies to those from Brazil and Texas, consistent with possible interactions with these fall armyworm groups, but appeared to have had minimal exchanges with those from Puerto Rico or Florida.

Field trapping assays were conducted in 2009 and 2010 throughout western Michigan, to evaluate lures for adult emerald ash borer, A. planipennis Fairmaire (Coleoptera: Buprestidae). Several ash tree volatiles were tested on purple prism traps in 2009, and a dark green prism trap in 2010. In 2009, six bark oil distillate lure treatments were tested against manuka oil lures (used in 2008 by USDA APHIS PPQ emerald ash borer cooperative program). Purple traps baited with 80/20 (manuka/phoebe oil) significantly increased beetle catch compared with traps baited with manuka oil alone. In 2010 we monitored emerald ash borer attraction to dark green traps baited with six lure combinations of 80/20 (manuka/phoebe), manuka oil, and (3Z)-hexenol. Traps baited with manuka oil and (3Z)-hexenol caught significantly more male and total count insects than traps baited with manuka oil alone. Traps baited with manuka oil and (3Z)-hexenol did not catch more beetles when compared with traps baited with (3Z)-hexenol alone. When compared with unbaited green traps our results show that (3Z)-hexenol improved male catch significantly in only one of three field experiments using dark green traps. Dark green traps caught a high number of A. planipennis when unbaited while (3Z)-hexenol was seen to have a minimal (nonsignificant) trap catch effect at several different release rates. We hypothesize that the previously reported kairomonal attractancy of (3Z)-hexenol (for males) on light green traps is not as obvious here because of improved male attractancy to the darker green trap.

Recreational travel is a recognized vector for the spread of invasive species in North America. However, there has been little quantitative analysis of the risks posed by such travel and the associated transport of firewood. In this study, we analyzed the risk of forest insect spread with firewood and estimated related dispersal parameters for application in geographically explicit invasion models. Our primary data source was the U.S. National Recreation Reservation Service database, which records camper reservations at >2,500 locations nationwide. For >7 million individual reservations made between 2004 and 2009 (including visits from Canada), we calculated the distance between visitor home address and campground location. We constructed an empirical dispersal kernel (i.e., the probability distribution of the travel distances) from these “origin-destination” data, and then fitted the data with various theoretical distributions. We found the data to be strongly leptokurtic (fat-tailed) and fairly well fit by the unbounded Johnson and lognormal distributions. Most campers (≈53%) traveled <100 km, but ≈10% traveled >500 km (and as far as 5,500 km). Additionally, we examined the impact of geographic region, specific destinations (major national parks), and specific origin locations (major cities) on the shape of the dispersal kernel, and found that mixture distributions (i.e., theoretical distribution functions composed of multiple univariate distributions) may fit better in some circumstances. Although only a limited amount of all transported firewood is likely to be infested by forest insects, this still represents a considerable increase in dispersal potential beyond the insects' natural spread capabilities.

An instantaneous puff dispersion model was used to assess concentration fields of the Douglas-fir beetle, Dendroctonus pseudotsugae Hopkins, antiaggregation pheromone, 3-methylcyclohex-2-en-1-one (MCH), within a 1-ha circular plot. Several combinations of MCH release rate and releaser spacing were modeled to theoretically analyze optimal deployment strategies. The combinations of MCH release rate and releaser spacing used in the modeling exercise were based on results of previous field studies of treatment efficacy. Analyses of model results suggest that a release rate up to six times the initial standard, at a correspondingly wider spacing to keep the total amount of pheromone dispersed per unit area constant, may be effective at preventing Douglas-fir beetle infestation. The model outputs also provide a visual representation of pheromone dispersion patterns that can occur after deployment of release devices in the field. These results will help researchers and practitioners design more effective deployment strategies.

The redbay ambrosia beetle, Xyleborus glabratus Eichhoff, is a non-native invasive pest and vector of the fungus that causes laurel wilt disease in certain trees of the family Lauraceae. This study assessed the relative attractiveness and suitability of cut bolts of several tree species to X. glabratus. In 2009, female X. glabratus were equally attracted to traps baited with swampbay (Persea palustris (Rafinesque) Sargent) and camphortree (Cinnamomum camphora (L.) J. Presl), which were more attractive than avocado (Persea americana Miller), lancewood (Ocotea coriacea (Swartz) Britton), and sweetbay (Magnolia virginiana L.). These species were more attractive than loblolly bay (Gordonia lasianthus (L.) J. Ellis). X. glabratus entrance hole density and emergence from caged bolts were highest on swampbay and camphortree. In 2010, swampbay was significantly more attractive to X. glabratus than sassafras (Sassafras albidum (Nuttall) Nees), yellow poplar (Liriodendron tulipifera L.), and eastern redbud (Cercis canadensis L.). Sassafras bolts end sealed with a liquid wax-and-water emulsion were more attractive to X. glabratus than end-sealed bolts of yellow poplar and redbud. Relative to unsealed bolts, end seal decreased X. glabratus entrance hole density on swampbay and decreased granulate ambrosia beetle (Xylosandrus crassiusculus (Motschulsky)) trap catch, entrance hole density, and adult emergence from swampbay. X. crassiusculus was not attracted to sassafras, yellow poplar, and redbud and was not more attracted to manuka oil than to unbaited traps. Sassafras was more attractive to X. glabratus than previously reported and supported reproducing populations of the insect. End sealing bolts with a wax-and-water emulsion may not be optimal for attracting and rearing ambrosia beetles in small logs.

Tests were conducted that evaluated efficacy of wax matrix bait stations for Ceratitis capitata (Wiedemann) adults in Guatemala. Bait stations were exposed to outdoor conditions to determine effect of weathering on longevity as indicated by bait station age. Results of laboratory tests found that bait stations with spinosad and ammonium acetate remained effective for at least 31 d compared with pesticide-free controls, although there was some loss of efficacy over time. Percentage mortality for bait station strips with 2% spinosad and 1% ammonium acetate decreased from 100 ± 0.0% on day 0 to 70 ± 7.1% after 31 d. Ammonia concentration had little effect on percentage mortality although there was some indication that ammonia concentration affected number of flies observed on the bait stations. Bait station strips (one per cage) were more effective than controls for 6–8 wk when tests were conducted in field cages (3 m diameter × 2 m), but only 2–3 wk when tests were conducted in large (2.5 m high and 6.0 m wide and 7.5 m long) field cages. Longevity was restored when multiple bait stations (3, 6, or 12) were deployed per cage. Bait stations containing methomyl were used for field tests of efficacy for wild flies. Dipped lure bait stations, which were made by coating two edges of commercial ammonium acetate and trimethylamine lures, killed six times more flies than corn cob bait stations dipped into a Nulure/malathion solution. They also killed more flies than pesticide-free controls for 8 wk.

In Florida, southern highbush (SHB) blueberries (Vaccinium corymbosum L. × Vaccinium darrowi Camp) are grown for a highly profitable early season fresh market. Flower thrips are the key pest of SHB blueberries, and Frankliniella bispinosa (Morgan) is the most common species found. Flower thrips injure blueberry flowers by feeding and ovipositing in all developing tissues. These injuries can lead to scarring of developing fruit. The objectives of this study were to determine the relationship between thrips and yield in different SHB blueberry cultivars and to determine an action threshold. Experiments were conducted during early spring 2007 and 2008 on four farms; a research farm in Citra, FL; and three commercial farms, two in Hernando Co., FL., and one in Lake Co., FL. At the Citra farm, ‘Emerald’, ‘Jewel’, ‘Millennia’, and ‘Star’ blueberries were compared in 2007, and all but Star were compared in 2008. On the Hernando and Lake Co. farms, two treatment thresholds (100 and 200 thrips per trap) and an untreated control and four cultivars (Emerald, Jewel, Millennia, and ‘Windsor’) were compared. Emerald consistently had more thrips per trap and per flower than the other cultivars on all four farms. However, this did not always lead to an increase in fruit injury. Thrips numbers exceeded the threshold on only one farm in 2007, and there was a significantly lower proportion of injured and malformed fruit in the 100 thrips per trap threshold treatment compared with the control on this farm.

Tamarixia triozae (Burks) (Hymenoptera: Eulophidae) is an important parasitoid of the potato or tomato psyllid, Bactericera cockerelli (Sulc) (Hemiptera: Trizoidae), a serious pest of potato (Solanum tuberosum L.), tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.), and other solanaceous vegetables in many countries. To produce a marketable crop, insecticides are required when B. cockerelli populations reach economically damaging levels. We evaluated 11 commonly used insecticides for their effects on T. triozae. Glass-surface residues of spinetoram, imidacloprid-cyfluthrin, abamectin, and tolfenpyrad caused 100% mortality of T. triozae in 72 h, and the leaf residue of spinetoram was extremely toxic to T. triozae adults; even 15-d-old residues caused 100% mortality. Cyantraniliprole, fenpyroximate, pymetrozine, spirotetramat, spiromesifen, and chenopodium oil did not cause significant mortality in either glass surface or leaf-residue bioassays. Ingestion of spinetoram, abamectin, and imidacloprid cyfluthrin (Leverage) by the adults resulted in 100% mortality in 12 h, and tolfenpyrad, 75.0% mortality in 12 h; whereas chenopodium oil and pymetrozine showed moderate effects on adult survival. Ingestion of abamectin, imidacloprid-cyfluthrin, and spinetoram killed all adults in the first day of treatment, whereas female adults in the treatment of pymetrozine lived 80.8 d, which was similar to those in the control. Ingestion of abamectin, imidacloprid-cyfluthrin, chenopodium oil, and spinetoram killed all male adults in the first day, whereas ingestion of other insecticides did not cause significant mortality, but reduced percent parasitism. Abamectin, imidacloprid-cyfluthrin, and spinetoram had the most deleterious effects on T. triozae, and have the least potential for use in integrated control programs using this parasitoid.

As a result of relaxation of importation restrictions ordered by the Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service of the U.S. Department of Agriculture, shipments of fresh avocados from Mexico began entering California year-round in 2007, despite the fact that these shipments were heavily infested with a number of exotic and potentially invasive armored scale species that are not thought to be present in California. Here, we report the identification of the sex pheromone of one of these species, Acutaspis albopicta (Cockerell), from a quarantine colony of these insects initiated from specimens collected from commercial shipments of Mexican avocados. The compound was identified as [(1S,3S)-2,2-dimethyl-3-(prop-1-en-2-yl)cyclobutyl)]methyl (R)-2-methylbutanoate, and was similar in structure to the pheromones of several other scale and mealybug species. In laboratory bioassays, the pheromone was highly attractive to male scales in microgram doses. The pheromone will provide a very sensitive and selective tool for detection of the scale to try and prevent its permanent establishment in California.

The impact of light intensity on the uptake and persistence of the systemic neonicotinoid insecticides, imidacloprid and dinotefuran, were evaluated in poinsettia (Euphorbia pulcherrima Willd.) and yellow sage (Lantana camara L.). Insecticide residues were measured in leaves sampled from the treated plants at four time intervals after treatment to determine the relationship between insecticide concentration and efficacy against two insect pests: sweetpotato whitefly, Bemisia tabaci Gennadius, and the citrus mealybug, Planococcus citri Risso. The insecticides were evaluated at their respective label rate and at the comparable label rate of the other insecticide under two different light environments: ambient and shade. The uptake of dinotefuran into yellow sage was more rapid at both treatment rates than both rates of imidacloprid, resulting in higher percent mortality of whitefly nymphs (89.8–100) compared with imidacloprid (14.1–89.2) across all 4 wk. Additionally, plants that received both rates of dinotefuran had fewer whitefly pupae (<1.0) at week 4 compared with imidacloprid-treated plants (23.7–25.3). The uptake of dinotefuran into poinsettia plants was also more rapid and resulted in quicker and higher percent mortality of whitefly nymphs (89.5–99.6) compared with imidacloprid (14.1–89.2) across all 4 wk. However, despite efficient uptake, the efficacy of both systemic insecticides was less for citrus mealybug where percent mortality values were <50% among all the treatments across the 4 wk. The use of the two systemic insecticides evaluated in regards to pest management in horticultural cropping systems is discussed.

Levee breaches because of Hurricane Katrina in 2005 inundated 80% of the city of New Orleans, LA. Formosan subterranean termites were observed actively foraging within in-ground monitoring stations within months after this period of flooding. It was unknown if the activity could be attributed to preexisting colonies that survived inundation or to other colonies surviving flooding by being located at higher elevations readily invading these territories. Genotypic profiles of 17 termite colonies collected from eight inundated locations before flooding were compared with termite colonies after flooding from the same locations to determine Formosan subterranean termite survival after sustained flooding. Results indicate that 14 colonies were able to survive inundation for extended periods.

To assess possible colony-level effects of fipronil, a commonly used nonrepellent termiticide, we conducted a field study of eight houses in the Raleigh, NC, area with infestations of the eastern subterranean termite Reticulitermes flavipes (Kollar) (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae). We installed an extensive grid of in-ground monitoring stations on each property (mean = 68.6 monitors per property) and collected samples from these stations as well as from mud tubes in the structure and wood debris in the yard for ≈6 mo. We genotyped all samples by using microsatellite markers to identify the number and locations of colonies present on each property. Houses were treated with either a full treatment (n = 5) or exterior/localized interior treatment (n = 3). After treatment, the monitors were checked monthly for 3 mo and then quarterly for 3 yr to track the fate of colonies. Wood debris in natural areas was checked semiannually for 3 yr. All 11 of the treated colonies (those attacking structures) disappeared within 90 d of treatment and were not found again. These colonies were presumed to be eliminated. In contrast, 60% of untreated colonies (those located >6 m from the foundation wall at the time of treatment) continued to persist throughout the study, as did 25% of the likely treated colonies (those occupying monitors 0.5 m from the foundation wall where the treatment was applied). Our results provide strong evidence for potent colony wide effects of fipronil on subterranean termites leading to colony suppression and likely colony elimination under field conditions.

Using a quarterly (3-mo) monitoring and bait-replenishment interval, 122 subterranean termite colonies throughout the United States were baited with a refined cellulose bait matrix containing 0.5% noviflumuron. All colonies were eliminated in less than 1 yr after initiation of baiting as determined by long-term monitoring and genetic markers. Sixty-three percent of the colonies were eliminated during the first quarter after the initiation of baiting and 77% of colonies were eliminated after consuming two bait tubes or less. This suggests that a single baiting cycle and bait installed in response to a single active monitoring device were sufficient to eliminate the majority of colonies. Although termites temporarily abandoned stations after depleting bait, workers resumed feeding when baits were replenished. Colonies that consumed large amounts of bait before elimination foraged into multiple stations, thus allowing adequate amounts of bait to sustain feeding. The time to eliminate termite colonies with bait replenished quarterly was similar to that previously reported for laminated cellulose bait replenished monthly. Our data support the conclusion that extending the bait replenishment interval from monthly to quarterly for bait tubes with refined cellulose containing 0.5% noviflumuron did not adversely impact colony elimination.

The Asian citrus psyllid, Diaphorina citri Kuwayama, is a worldwide pest of citrus, which vectors the putative causal pathogen of huanglongbing. Current management practices warrant continuous monitoring of field populations for insecticide resistance. Baseline activities of acetylcholinesterase (AChE), general esterase, and glutathione S-transferase as well as sensitivity of AChE to selected organophosphate and carbamate insecticides were established for a susceptible laboratory strain (Lab) and compared with several field populations of D. citri from Florida. The specific activity of AChE in various D. citri populations ranged from 0.77 to 1.29 µM min^-1 mg of protein^-1; the Lab strain was characterized by the highest activity. Although reduced AChE sensitivity was observed in the Lab strain compared with field populations, overlap of 95% confidence intervals of I₅₀ values (concentration required for 50% AChE activity inhibition) suggests no significant difference in AChE sensitivity among all populations tested for a given insecticide. There was no significant evidence of target site insensitivity in field populations that were exposed to the selected organophosphate and carbamate insecticides tested. The specific activity of general esterase and glutathione S-transferase was lowest in the Lab strain and was generally comparable to that of the field populations evaluated. The current data provide a mode-of-action specific baseline for future monitoring of resistance to organophosphate and carbamate insecticides in populations of D. citri.

The Colorado potato beetle (Leptinotarsa decemlineata (Say)) in the north Xinjiang Uygur autonomous region has evolved resistance to various types of insecticides. Chlorantraniliprole is a novel anthranilic diamide insecticide that binds and activates ryanodine receptors. It exhibited excellent efficacy against L. decemlineata in several field trails in Europe. In the present paper, the susceptibility of L. decemlineata fourth-instar larvae derived from six field populations and L. decemlineata adults derived from three field populations to chlorantraniliprole was determined by a topical application. The fourth-instar larvae were substantially more susceptible to chlorantraniliprole than adults, although the range of susceptibility was far greater among the fourth-instar larvae. Regarding stomach toxicities, adult beetles were less susceptible to chlorantraniliprole than larvae. Chlorantraniliprole was most toxic to second-instar larvae, followed by third- and fourth-instar larvae. These data suggested that the appropriate timing for chlorantraniliprole spraying is the early larval stage. More-over, the synergistic activities of chlorantraniliprole in combination with triphenyl phosphate, diethyl maleate, or piperonyl butoxide against fourth-instar larvae from two field populations and adults from one field population were tested. Piperonyl butoxide had synergistic effects with chlorantraniliprole against fourth-instar larvae but not against adult beetles. Conversely, triphenyl phosphate and diethyl maleate exerted little synergistic effects. It appears that there is a potential risk of resistance against chlorantraniliprole resulting from cytochrome P450 monooxygenase activity.

In agriculture, although it is important to identify species of pest insects, the morphological identification is often difficult. DNA genotyping is useful for the identification of species in morphologically indiscriminable species. Thrips tabaci (Lindeman) can be divided into two reproductive forms (arrhenotoky and thelytoky, each of which different in pesticide resistance) but morphological discrimination is not possible. Here, we establish a simple method to discriminate the strains based on their mitochondrial DNA sequences. Phylogenetic analysis including the T. tabaci and congeneric species provided ancestor sequences of each strain of T. tabaci. Based on the ancestor sequences, we developed a primer set that include strain specific primers on sense strand and common primer on anti sense strand. Using this primer set, the strains of 196 individuals of T. tabaci were successfully assigned to each of genotypic forms. As the phylogeny and ancestor sequences were based on worldwide samples, this method will work well on most populations around the world.

The cDNAs of three novel P450 genes, CYP4CB1, CYP4CC1, and CYP4CD1 (GenBank accessions EU979550, EU979549, and EU979551, respectively), were sequenced and characterized from the psocid Liposcelis bostrychophila Badonnel (Psocoptera: Liposcelididae). CYP4CB1, CYP4CC1, and CYP4CD1 contain open reading frames of 1533, 1512, and 1536 nucleotides that encode 511, 504, and 512 amino acid residues, respectively. The putative proteins of CYP4CB1, CYP4CC1, and CYP4CD1 show predicted molecular mass of 59.65, 58.87, and 59.71 kDa, with a theoretical isoelectric point of 6.59, 8.80, and 8.84, respectively. The N-terminal transmembrane domain was only found in CYP4CB1 suggested it is a typical microsomal P450. Phylogenetic analysis showed a close relationship of CYP4CB1, CYP4CC1, and CYP4CD1 with CYP4AW1, CYP4L4, and CYP4E2. Quantitative real-time reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction indicated that these three genes were expressed at all tested developmental stages. In addition, the highest expression occurred in the adult stage, which suggested that these three P450 genes may play important roles in adulthood. The transcripts of CYP4CB1 and CYP4CC1 in adult psocids could be induced to the highest level at 36 and 24 h after the exposure to deltamethrin and paraoxon-methyl (50% lethal concentration [LC₅₀]), respectively, whereas CYP4CD1 remained unchanged. CYP4CD1 transcripts, however, increased rapidly at 8 h after aldicarb (LC₅₀) induction and reached the peak at 36 h. The induction profiles of the three P450 genes suggested that CYP4CB1 and CYP4CC1 are possibly associated with deltamethrin and paraoxonmethyl metabolism in psocids, whereas CYP4CD1 is probably involved in aldicarb metabolism. However, our assumption needs to be further verified by recombinant protein expression of these proteins as well as RNA interference of these genes.

Spodoptera frugiperda (J.E. Smith) is composed of two genetically distinct strains, the so-called corn strain and the rice strain. Whether the two strains differ in their host use is unclear, because laboratory experiments have not been able to show consistent host performance or preference differences between them, and field studies showed high rates of hybridization, as well as some degree asymmetric host use. To determine the distribution of the two strains and their association with host plants, we collected fall armyworm larvae from different crops (corn, rice, alfalfa, and sorghum) and grasses in 15 different localities over 4 yr in Argentina, Brazil, and Paraguay. The strain identity was analyzed using two polymorphisms in the mitochondrial cytochrome oxidase subunit I gene. We identified the corn and rice haplotypes and three types of populations were characterized based on the frequencies of the individuals that belonged to any of these haplotypes: in 44% of populations the corn haplotype predominated, in 44% of populations the rice haplotype was the most frequent, and 11% of populations showed both haplotypes at similar proportions. In total, eight populations (47%) showed the expected pattern, two populations (12%) were polymorphic within the same field, and seven populations (41%) showed the inverse pattern. Taken together, there was no consistent pattern of host association between the two sympatric genotypes and their respective host plants. This investigation supports the need for additional studies to determine which other forces keep the genotypes separate, and what is the degree of genetic differentiation between these populations.

The spiraea aphid (Aphis spiraecola Patch) is a primary pest of fruit trees, particularly pear trees in China. Despite the economic importance of this pest, little is known about its genetic structure or its patterns of dispersal at local and regional scales; however, knowledge of these characteristics is important for establishing effective control strategies for this pest. The genetic variability of 431 individuals from 21 populations on pear trees in China was investigated using eight polymorphic microsatellite loci. The high polymorphism of these markers was evident from the expected heterozygosity value (He = 0.824) and the Polymorphism Information Content (PIC = 0.805), indicating that the spiraea aphid maintains a high level of genetic diversity. The analysis of molecular variance revealed a middle level of population differentiation (F_ST = 0.1478) among A. spiraecola populations. This result is consistent with the results of the STRUCTURE analysis (K = 3), the unweighted pair-group method with arithmetic average tree and the Mantel test (r = 0.6392; P < 0.05). Our results indicate high levels of genetic exchange in the spiraea aphid, possibly facilitated by geography and climate. Our findings emphasize the importance of considering regional differences in studies of population structure, even when strong isolation-by-distance influences the genetic population structure of species.

Bird cherry-oat aphid, Rhopalosiphum padi (L.), a polyphagous species with a nearly worldwide distribution, is an important pest of wheat as well as the main vector of barley yellow dwarf virus. We evaluated the resistance categories of eight wheat lines including antibiosis, antixenosis, and tolerance against R. padi under laboratory conditions. The wheat lines tested were ERWYT 88-8, ERWYT 87-6, and ERWYT 87-4 (resistant); ERWYT 87-1, ERWYT 87-20, and ERWYT 88-11 (susceptible); ERWYT 88-12 and ERWYT 88-13 (intermediate). In the antibiosis experiment, R. padi produced fewest progeny on ERWYT 88-8, ERWYT 87-6, and ERWYT 87-4 in reproduction period. In the antixenosis test, R. padi performed best on ERWYT 87-1, ERWYT 87-20, and ERWYT 88-11. Fewer apterous aphids selected ERWYT 88-8, ERWYT 87-4, and ERWYT 87-6 lines indicating antixenosis of these lines to R. padi. In tolerance experiments, however growth parameters differed between treated and untreated seedlings of wheat lines with 10 aphids per day infestation during 21-d period, but not among eight wheat lines. The plant resistance index values were greatest for ERWYT 88-8 (9.71), followed by ERWYT 87-4 (7.04) and ERWYT 87-6 (4.76). ERWYT 88-8, ERWYT 87-6, and ERWYT 87-4 may be important sources of R. padi resistance for small grain breeding and integrated pest management programs.

No soybean cultivars exhibit resistance to larval damage by the cerambycid, Dectes texanus LeConte, in the United States. Selected soybean varieties and plant introductions (PIs) in maturity groups VI to VIII from the U.S. Department of Agriculture National Soybean Germplasm Collection were evaluated for D. texanus resistance in a series of field and laboratory experiments from 2005 through 2008. In field cage experiments, the numbers of oviposition punctures (OPs) per plant were determined as indicators of oviposition antixenosis and the ratio of OPs per live D. texanus larvae (OP/Lv) served as an indicator of plant antibiosis to larvae. A D. texanus-susceptible variety treated with the systemic insecticide fipronil was used as a positive antibiosis control. Plant introduction PI165673 had the highest OP/Lv ratio, indicating that even if oviposition was successful, an antibiosis factor in PI165673 significantly reduced egg hatch and the resulting number of live D. texanus larvae. Factorial analyses indicated that maturity group is not a significant factor in the expression of resistance. Thus, PI165673 appears to be a potential source of resistance to D. texanus. In related field studies, the preferred D. texanus oviposition site was localized to leaf petioles in the upper four or five nodes of the plant canopy. Histomorphological analyses of petiole cross-sections of plant introductions PI171451, PI165676, and PI165673 indicated that leaf petiole morphology may be related to reduced D. texanus oviposition on petioles of PI171451 and PI165676, but that resistance in PI165673 is independent of petiole morphology.

The soybean aphid, Aphis glycines Matsumura (Hemiptera: Aphididae), is a major pest of soybean, Glycine max (L.). Merr., that significantly reduces yield in northern production areas of North America. Insecticides are widely used to control soybean aphid outbreaks, but efforts are underway to develop host plant resistance as an effective alternative management strategy. Here, previously identified resistant lines were evaluated in laboratory tests against field-collected populations of soybean aphid and in field-plot tests over 2 yr in South Dakota. Six lines previously identified with resistance to soybean aphid—Jackson, Dowling, K1639, Cobb, Palmetto and Sennari—were resistant in this study, but relatively high aphid counts on Tie-feng 8 in field plots contrasted with its previously reported resistance. Bhart-PI 165989 showed resistance in one of two laboratory tests, but it had relatively large aphid infestations in both years of field tests. Intermediate levels of soybean aphid occurred in field plots on lines previously shown to have strong (Sugao Zairai, PI 230977, and D75-10169) or moderate resistance to soybean aphid (G93-9223, Bragg, Braxton, and Tracy-M). Sugao Zairai also failed to have a significant proportion of resistant plants in two laboratory tests against aphids field-collected in 2008, but it was resistant in laboratory tests with aphids collected in 2002, 2005, and 2006. Overall, results showed that lines with Rag (i.e., Jackson) or Rag1 gene (i.e., Dowling) had low aphid numbers, whereas lines with Rag2 (i.e., Sugao Zairai, Sennari) had mixed results. Collectively, responses of soybean aphid populations in laboratory and field tests in 2008 resembled a virulence pattern reported previously for biotype 3 soybean aphids, but virulence in soybean aphid populations was variable and dynamic over years of the study. These results, coupled with previous reports of biotypes virulent to Rag1, suggest that deployment of lines with a single aphid-resistance gene is limited for soybean aphid management, and that deployment strategies relying on multiple resistance genes may be needed to effectively use plant resistance against soybean aphid.

The plant bugs Lygus hesperus Knight (Hemiptera: Miridae) and L. lineolaris (Palisot de Beauvois) have emerged as economic pests of cotton in the United States. These hemipteran species are refractory to the insect control traits found in genetically modified commercial varieties of cotton. In this article, we report the isolation and characterization of a 35 kDa crystal protein from Bacillus thuringiensis, designated TIC807, which causes reduced mass gain and mortality of L. hesperus and L. lineolaris nymphs when presented in an artificial diet feeding assay. Cotton plants expressing the TIC807 protein were observed to impact the survival and development of L. hesperus nymphs in a concentration-dependent manner. These results, demonstrating in planta activity of a Lygus insecticidal protein, represent an important milestone in the development of cotton varieties protected from Lygus feeding damage.

The western corn rootworm, Diabrotica virgifera virgifera LeConte (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae), is a major pest of corn (Zea mays L.) in North America and has evolved resistance to crop rotation by ovipositing in alternate crops such as soybeans [Glycine max (L.) Merr.]. Through experiments with plants grown in the greenhouse and the field, we tested whether soybeans with resistance to the soybean aphid, Aphis glycines Matsumura (Hemiptera: Aphididae), affected survival, fecundity, and consumption of soybean for D. v. virgifera. Soybean varieties tested included those types resistant to A. glycines (Rag1 and rag1/rag3) and a susceptible near isoline of the Rag1 variety. Females were provided with a diet of corn tissue for 4 d after which they were fed a diet of tissue from one of three soybean varieties for 4 d, starved for 4 d, or fed corn tissue. When fed greenhouse grown plants, strains differed significantly in survival and consumption, but consumption did not differ by variety of soybean. Diet treatment only affected fecundity; individuals fed corn continuously had greater fecundity than those individuals fed soybeans. In the experiment with plants grown in the field, leaf consumption differed among strains and individuals fed corn continuously had greater fecundity than the other treatments. Soybean varieties with Rag1 and rag1/rag3 resistance to A. glycines did not appear to affect the fitness of D. v. virgifera. Thus, planting of these A. glycines-resistant soybean varieties should not directly affect the spread of rotation-resistant D. v. virgifera.

Onion thrips, Thrips tabaci Lindeman (Thysanoptera: Thripidae), is a worldwide pest of onion, Allium cepa L. In field studies on onion resistance conducted in 2007 and 2008 using 49 cultivars, 11 showed low leaf damage by T. tabaci. In laboratory studies, the 11 cultivars, along with two susceptible checks and four additional cultivars, were evaluated to characterize resistance to T. tabaci and to determine if color and/or light reflectance were associated with resistance to T. tabaci. No-choice tests were performed with adults and the numbers of eggs and larvae were counted on each cultivar after three and 10 d, respectively. In choice tests in which all cultivars were planted together in a circle in a single pot, 100 adults were released and the number of adults on each plant was evaluated 24 h later. The behavioral response of walking T. tabaci adults to plant odors was studied in a glass Y-tube olfactometer. The reflectance spectrum of leaves was measured using a UV-VTS spectrophotometer. Results indicate that resistant cultivars showed an intermediate-high antibiotic effect to T. tabaci and all of them showed a very strong antixenotic effect. There were no significant preferences in the response of walking T. tabaci adults to plant odors. The two susceptible cultivars had the highest values of leaf reflectance for the first (275–375 nm) and second (310–410 nm) theoretical photopigment-system of T. tabaci, and these values were significantly different from most resistant cultivars. These results suggest a strong response of T. tabaci to onion cultivars with higher reflectance in the ultraviolet range (270–400 nm). Overall, these results appear promising in helping to identify categories of resistance to T. tabaci in onions that can be used in breeding programs.

Unlike most documented plant-insect interactions, Hessian fly-resistance [Mayetiola destructor (Say)] in wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) is initiated by a gene-for-gene recognition event in which plants carrying a specific R gene recognize salivary effectors encoded by a corresponding larval avirulence gene. However, dual infestation resulting from oviposition by virulent insects from 5 d before to 3 d after oviposition by avirulent insects on the same host plant, lead to systemic induced susceptibility, obviation of resistance, and ultimately the survival of both virulent and genetically avirulent progeny to adulthood. Simultaneous oviposition allowed greater survival of avirulent progeny than ovipositions separated by larger intervals. Because of the induction of plant resistance, hatch of avirulent larvae before virulent was more detrimental to rate of development than hatch of virulent before avirulent larvae. Obviation of resistance was not localized to the leaf being attacked by the virulent larvae, but also functioned across spatial distance into younger leaves. This research suggests that virulent Hessian fly larvae directly suppress the defense response of wheat, thus providing a refuge for avirulent genotypes, preserving diversity in field populations and increasing durability of deployed resistance genes.

Fifty-five sweetpotato cultivars, experimental breeding clones, and plant introduction (PI) accessions were evaluated in 17 field experiments at the USDA, ARS, U.S. Vegetable Laboratory (Charleston, SC; 12 evaluations, 1997–2010), the Clemson University, Edisto Research and Education Center (Blackville, SC; two evaluations, 1998–1999), and the University of Florida, Tropical Research and Education Center (Homestead, FL; three evaluations, 2005–2007). These experiments included two insect-susceptible control entries (‘Beauregard’ and ‘SC1149-19’) and three insect-resistant control cultivars (‘Regal,’ ‘Ruddy,’ and ‘Sumor’). At each location, genotypes differed significantly in the percentage of uninjured roots WDS (wireworm, Diabrotica, Systena) index, the percentage of roots damaged by the sweetpotato weevil (Cylas formicarius (F.)), the percentage of roots damaged by the sweetpotato flea beetle (Chaetocnema confinis Crotch), and the percentage of roots damaged by white grub larvae (including Plectris aliena Chapin and Phyllophaga spp.). ‘SC1149-19’ had a significantly lower percentage of uninjured roots, a significantly higher WDS index rating, and significantly higher percentages of infestation by flea beetles, grubs, and sweetpotato weevils than most other sweetpotato genotypes in this study. In addition, 43 of 55 genotypes had significantly less overall insect damage than ‘Beauregard,’ one of the leading commercial orange-fleshed cultivars in the United States. Ten genotypes had significantly less insect injury than ‘Picadito,’ a commercial boniatotype sweetpotato grown extensively in southern Florida. Many of these sweetpotato genotypes have high levels of resistance to soil insect pests, and they may be useful as sources of insect resistance for use in sweetpotato breeding programs.

Redbay ambrosia beetle, Xyleborus glabratus Eichhoff, is an exotic wood-borer that vectors the fungal agent (Raffaelea lauricola) responsible for laurel wilt. Laurel wilt has had severe impact on forest ecosystems in the southeastern United States, killing a large proportion of native Persea trees, particularly redbay (P. borbonia) and swampbay (P. palustris), and currently poses an economic threat to avocado (P. americana) in Florida. To control the spread of this lethal disease, effective attractants are needed for early detection of the vector. Two 12-wk field tests were conducted in Florida to evaluate efficacy and longevity of manuka and phoebe oil lures, and to relate captures of X. glabratus to release rates of putative sesquiterpene attractants. Two trap types were also evaluated, Lindgren funnel traps and sticky panel traps. To document lure emissions over time, a separate set of lures was aged outdoors for 12 wk and sampled periodically to quantify volatile sesquiterpenes using super-Q adsorbant and gas chromatography-mass spectroscopy analysis. Phoebe lures captured significantly more X. glabratus than manuka lures, and sticky traps captured more beetles than funnel traps. Phoebe lures captured X. glabratus for 10–12 wk, but field life of manuka lures was 2–3 wk. Emissions of α-copaene, α-humulene, and cadinene were consistently higher from phoebe lures, particularly during the 2–3 wk window when manuka lures lost efficacy, suggesting that these sesquiterpenes are primary kairomones used by host-seeking females. Results indicate that the current monitoring system is suboptimal for early detection of X. glabratus because of rapid depletion of sesquiterpenes from manuka lures.

Insecticidal potential of natural zeolites and diatomaceous earths originating from Serbia against Sitophilus oryzae (L.) and Tribolium castaneum (Herbst) was evaluated. Two natural zeolite formulations (NZ and NZ Modified) were applied to wheat at rates of 0.50, 0.75, and 1.0 g/kg, while two diatomaceous earth (DE) formulations (DE S-1 and DE S-2) were applied at rates of 0.25, 0.50, 0.75, and 1.0 g/kg. A bioassay was conducted under laboratory conditions: temperature of 24 ± 1°C, relative humidity in the range 50–55%, in tests with natural zeolites, and 60–65%, in tests with DEs, and in all combinations for progeny production. Mortality was assessed after 7, 14, and 21 d of insect contact with treated wheat, and the total mortality after an additional 7-d recovery on untreated broken wheat. Progeny production was also assessed after 8 wk for S. oryzae and 12 wk for T. castaneum. The highest mortality for S. oryzae and T. castaneum was found after the longest exposure period and 7 d of recovery, on wheat treated with NZ at the highest rate and DEs at rates of 0.50–1.0 g/kg. Progeny reduction higher than 90% was achieved after 14 and 21 d of contact of both beetle pests with wheat treated with DE S-1 at 0.50–1.0 g/kg and DE S-2 at 0.75–1.0 g/kg, while the same level of reduction was achieved only for T. castaneum after its contact with the highest rate of NZ formulation. NZ Modified, applied even at the highest rate, revealed much lower insecticidal potential.

Monoterpenoids and low pressure have each been demonstrated to cause mortality of stored-product insect pests. The current report investigated the prospects of integrating the two methods in the management of diapausing and nondiapausing larvae of Plodia interpunctella (Hübner). In a separate experiment, the larvae were exposed to 35.5 mmHg in Erlenmeyer flasks at 19 and 28°C for times ranging from 30 min to 96 h. Another set of experiments was conducted to investigate the toxicity of exposing P. interpunctella larvae to monoterpenoids including E-anethole, estragole, S-carvone, linalool, L-fenchone, geraniol, γ-terpinene, and DL-camphor alone or in combination with low pressure (50 mmHg). Lethal times (LT) determined by subjecting time-mortality data to probit analyses were shortened to half when both diapausing and nondiapausing larvae were exposed to low pressure at 28°C compared with 19°C. Exposure of diapausing larvae to a monoterpenoid alone, with the exception of DL-camphor and estragole, at a concentration of 66.7 µl/1L of volume required >30 h to generate 99% mortality at 19.0 ± 0.8^°C. However, the LT₉₉ values for diapausing and nondiapausing larvae exposed to combinations of DL-camphor or estragole and low pressure were considerably shortened. Combinations involving the rest of the monoterpenoids investigated and low pressure did not generate LT₉₉ that were shorter than those of the control, which was low pressure only. These results suggest that integrating low pressure with DL-camphor or estragole could be a new method for the control of diapausing larvae of P. interpunctella at cooler temperatures.

Variation in environmental and physical factors within food processing facilities can influence both the distribution of stored-product pests and trapping efficiency. Data from a long-term Tribolium castaneum (Herbst) (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae) monitoring program was used to evaluate spatial variation in captures among trap locations and to determine relationships with environmental and physical variables. From the complete monitoring data set, different subsets were created for the cool and warm seasons, and period of time when environmental and physical factors were measured (2009–2010), with all data sets showing significant differences among trap locations in terms of beetle captures and proportion of time that traps exceeded 2.5 beetles per trap per monitoring period. There was also considerable temporal variation in distribution among the different levels of the mill. Among the environmental and physical variables measured, mean temperature and flour dust accumulation showed the most significant positive relationships with variation of beetle captures at trap locations. More beetles were captured in traps located in close proximity to milling equipment. Presence of equipment near traps was also associated with an increase in flour dust accumulation and temperature. Overall the environmental and physical factors seemed to have a limited influence on variation in captures among trap locations, with temporal variation in distribution perhaps overwhelming potential influences of local trap conditions.

The influence of sanitation on responses of life stages of the red flour beetle, Tribolium castaneum (Herbst) (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae), an economically important pest in flour mills, was investigated in a pilot flour mill subjected to two, 24-h heat treatments. One hundred eggs or 100 adults of T. castaneum were exposed inside each 20-cm diameter by 15-cm high PVC rings holding 0.1-, 0.2-, 1.0-, 3.0-, 6.0-, and 10.0-cm-deep wheat flour to simulate different sanitation levels that may exist in a flour mill. These rings were placed on the first and third floors of a pilot flour mill. On the first floor, temperatures inside rings with eggs reached 50°C in 7–11 h only in 0.1- and 0.2-cm-deep flour treatments. In all other treatments the maximum temperatures attained generally were below 50°C and inversely related to flour depth. Adults of T. castaneum on this floor were less susceptible than eggs. The egg mortality decreased linearly with an increase in flour depth, whereas that of adults decreased exponentially. All eggs and adults in rings on the third floor were killed irrespective of flour depth, because temperatures inside rings reached 50°C in 15–17 h and were held above 50°C for 6–8 h with the maximum temperatures ranging between 55.0 and 57.0°C. Although the protective effects of flour on survival of T. castaneum eggs and adults were evident only if temperatures did not reach 50°C, removal of flour accumulations is essential to improve heat treatment effectiveness.

The influence of sanitation on responses of life stages of the red flour beetle, Tribolium castaneum (Herbst) (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae), was investigated in a pilot flour mill subjected to three, 24-h heat treatments by using forced-air gas heaters fueled by propane. Two sanitation levels, dusting of wheat flour and 2-cm-deep flour, were created in 25 plastic bioassay boxes, each holding eggs, young larvae, old larvae, pupae, and adults of T. castaneum plus two temperature sensors. Data loggers (48) were placed on the five mill floors to record air temperatures. The time required to reach 50°C, time above 50°C, and the maximum temperature among mill floors and in bioassay boxes were measured. The maximum temperature in bioassay boxes and in the mill was lower on the first floor than on other floors. This trend was apparent in time required to reach 50°C and time above 50°C, especially in compartments with 2-cm-deep flour. The mean ± SE mortality of T. castaneum life stages on the first floor was 55.5 ± 12.9–98.6 ± 0.8%; it was 93.2 ± 6.7–100 ± 0.0% on other floors. Adults were the least susceptible stage. Mortality of T. castaneum stages in compartments with 2-cm-deep flour was generally lower than those with flour dust. Costs for the three heat treatments ranged from US$27,438 to $28,838. An effective heat treatment can be conducted within 24 h, provided temperatures on mill floors reach 50°C in 8–12 h and are held above 50°C for at least 10–14 h, with maximum temperatures held between 50 and 60°C.

The residual efficacy of the juvenile hormone analog methoprene (Diacon II) was evaluated in bioassays using larvae of Tribolium castaneum (Herbst) (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae) exposed on unsealed concrete or varnished wood treated with a liquid formulation and held at different temperatures. When these two types of surfaces were stored at 20, 30 or 35°C for 0–24 wk, the percentage of adult emergence on concrete increased with time. In contrast, there was no adult emergence from larvae exposed to varnished wood at 24 wk after treatment at any of these temperatures. The presence of flour reduced residual efficacy of methoprene on concrete, but not on varnished wood, with no differences between cleaning frequencies. Methoprene was also stable for 48 h on concrete held at 65°C and wheat, Triticum aestivum L., held at 46°C. Results show that methoprene is stable at a range of temperatures commonly encountered in indoor food storage facilities and at high temperatures attained during insecticidal heat treatments of structures. The residual persistence of methoprene applied to different surface substrates may be affected more by the substrate than by temperature.

Hay mixed with manure and urine residues at sites where hay has been provided as supplemental winter feed for cattle provide an excellent substrate for the development of immature stable flies, Stomoxys calcitrans (L.). Such sites are primary sources of early summer stable flies in the central United States and no effective measures are currently available to control fly development in them. A single application of granular cyromazine in May provided 97% reduction in the number of adult stable flies emerging from hay feeding sites. Stable fly control did not decline during the 12 wk season. A small decline in control was observed relative to anthomyiid, sarcophagid, and syrphid flies developing in the hay feeding sites. However, none of those flies are considered to be pests and ≥50% control of those flies was maintained for 65 d after application. Cyromazine offers a safe and affordable option for the control of immature stable flies developing in winter hay feeding sites. Controlling those flies should reduce the estimated $2 billion per year of lost production in U.S. cattle industries attributable to stable flies.

We examined the effects of temperature on mortality of larval stable fly [Stomoxys calcitrans (L.)] caused by Bacillus thuringiensis tolworthi 4L3, B. t. darmastedensis 4M1, B. t. thompsoni 401, B. t. thuringiensis HD2, and B. t. kurstaki HD945. At moderate doses, mortality caused by all isolates ranged from 87 to 99% at 15°C and declined to 29–63% as temperature increased to 30°C. A similar pattern was seen when a higher dose was used, except that the reduction in mortality at warmer temperatures was not as great as was seen with the moderate doses. Insecticidal activity of each isolate against first-instar larvae was reduced by only 5–15% after 5 d in the medium. Mortality of second- and third-instar larvae ranged from 2 to 21%, suggesting the isolates were less effective against larger larvae.