Significant pesticide residues are among the most serious problems for sustainable agriculture. In the beekeeping environment, pesticides not only impact a honey bee's survival, but they also contaminate bee products. Taiwan's agricultural environment has suffered from pesticide stress that was higher than that found in Europe and America. This study deciphered problems of pesticide residues in fresh honey bee pollen samples collected from 14 monitoring apiaries in Taiwan, which reflected significant contaminations within the honey bee population. In total, 155 pollen samples were screened for 232 pesticides, and 56 pesticides were detected. Among the residues, fluvalinate and chlorpyrifos showed the highest concentrations, followed by carbendazim, carbaryl, chlorfenapyr, imidacloprid, ethion, and flufenoxuron. The average frequency of pesticide residues detected in pollen samples was ca. 74.8%. The amounts and types of pesticides were higher in winter and in southwestern Taiwan. Moreover, five of these pollen samples were contaminated with 11–15 pesticides, with average levels between 1,560 and 6,390 µg/kg. Compared with the literature, this study emphasized that pollen gathered by honey bee was highly contaminated with more pesticides in Taiwan than in the America, France, and Spain. The ubiquity of pesticides in the pollen samples was likely due to the field applications of common pesticides. Recently, the Taiwanese government began to improve the pesticide policy. According to the resurvey data in 2016, there were reductions in several pesticide contamination parameters in pollen samples from west to southwest Taiwan. A long-term investigation of pollen pesticide residues should be conducted to inspect pesticides usage in Taiwan's agriculture.

Parasites and pathogens are implicated in honey bee colony losses, and honey bees may also spread infection to wild pollinators. Bees consume nectar and pollen, which contain phytochemicals that can positively or negatively affect pollinator health. Certain phytochemicals can reduce parasite loads in humans and other animals. Understanding how phytochemicals affect honey bee infection and survival could help identify optimal forage sources and phytochemical treatments to ameliorate disease. We fed honey bees seven dietary phytochemicals to evaluate whether phytochemical consumption would treat preexisting infection in mature bees, or mitigate infection in young bees either inside or outside of their colonies. Phytochemicals were generally well-tolerated at levels documented in nectar, honey, and pollen, although clove oil and thymol increased mortality at high doses. Six of seven tested phytochemicals significantly increased antimicrobial peptide expression by 12.9 to 61-fold in older bees after 7 d consumption. Short-term (<24 h) phytochemical consumption reduced levels of Deformed wing virus (DWV) up to 500-fold in young bees released into field colonies. However, with the exception of high-dose clove oil, our phytochemical treatments did not alter infection with Lotmaria passim or Nosema ceranae. Phytochemicals also lacked antiviral effects for pollen-deprived bees reared outside the colony. Our results suggest that phytochemicals have potential therapeutic value for honey bees infected with DWV. Short-term phytochemical consumption may be sufficient to confer benefits against infection. Phytochemical concentrations that reduced disease were comparable with naturally occurring floral concentrations, suggesting that flowers could serve as seasonally varied, serially consumed pollinator medicines.

Courgette (Cucurbita pepo L.) production in the United Kingdom is estimated to be worth £6.7 million. However, little is known about this crop's requirement for insect-mediated pollination (pollinator dependence) and if pollinator populations in a landscape are able to fulfil its pollination needs (pollination deficit). Consequently, pollination experiments were conducted over 2 yr to explore pollinator dependence and pollination deficit in field-grown courgette in the United Kingdom. Results showed that pollination increased yield by 39% and there was no evidence of pollination limitation on crop yield. This was evidenced by a surprisingly low pollination deficit (of just 3%) and no statistical difference in yield (length grown, circumference, and weight) between open- and hand-pollinated crops. Nonetheless, the high economic value of courgettes means that reducing even the small pollination deficit could still increase profit by ∼£166/ha. Interestingly, 56% of fruit was able to reach marketable size and shape without any pollination. Understanding a crop's requirement for pollinators can aid growers in their decision-making about what varieties and sites should be used. In doing so, they may increase their agricultural resilience and further their economic advantage.

Recent pollinator declines highlight the importance of evaluating economic risk of agricultural systems heavily dependent on rented honey bees or native pollinators. Our study analyzed variability of native bees and honey bees, and the risks these pose to profitability of Maine's wild blueberry industry. We used cross-sectional data from organic, low-, medium-, and high-input wild blueberry producers in 1993, 1997–1998, 2005–2007, and from 2011 to 2015 (n = 162 fields). Data included native and honey bee densities (count/m²/min) and honey bee stocking densities (hives/ha). Blueberry fruit set, yield, and honey bee hive stocking density models were estimated. Fruit set is impacted about 1.6 times more by native bees than honey bees on a per bee basis. Fruit set significantly explained blueberry yield. Honey bee stocking density in fields predicted honey bee foraging densities. These three models were used in enterprise budgets for all four systems from on-farm surveys of 23 conventional and 12 organic producers (2012–2013). These budgets formed the basis of Monte Carlo simulations of production and profit. Stochastic dominance of net farm income (NFI) cumulative distribution functions revealed that if organic yields are high enough (2,345 kg/ha), organic systems are economically preferable to conventional systems. However, if organic yields are lower (724 kg/ha), it is riskier with higher variability of crop yield and NFI. Although medium-input systems are stochastically dominant with lower NFI variability compared with other conventional systems, the high-input system breaks even with the low-input system if honey bee hive rental prices triple in the future.

Owing to the recent declines in honey bee (Apis mellifera L.) populations, there is a need for field and laboratory studies to investigate threats to pollinator health. This study examines the hypothesis that the organophosphate alternative, Rimon 0.83EC, can have consequences to honey bee health by combining newly acquired field residue data, laboratory bioassays, and colony level feeding studies. Following label rate applications of Rimon 0.83EC to apple trees, average residue concentrations of the active ingredient, novaluron, were found to be 3.38 ppm in tree-collected pollen. Residues of the major co-formulant in Rimon 0.83EC, N-methyl-2-pyrrolidone (NMP), were below the limit of detection in the field, but a growth chamber study described here found that NMP can persist in pollen for up to 7 d with average concentrations of 69.3 ppm. Concurrent larval rearing studies found novaluron and NMP to be toxic to developing honey bees at doses as low as 100 ppb and 100 ppm, respectively. Nucleus colony feeding studies found that chronic exposure to Rimon 0.83EC at doses as low as 200 ppm (18.6 ppm novaluron) can result in interruptions to brood production that can last for up to 2 wk after exposure.Taken together, these data indicate the use of Rimon 0.83EC on blooming flowers is a significant threat to honey bee reproduction, and suggest the need for more strict and clear usage guidelines.

The cucurbit yellow stunting disorder virus (CYSDV) transmitted by Bemisia tabaci (Gennadius) (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae) has caused significant reductions in fall melon (Cucumis melo L.) yields inYuma County, Arizona. In a recent landscape-based study, we found evidence that cotton and spring melon fields increased abundance of B. tabaci and spread of CYSDV infection in fall melon fields. Here, we show that a statistical model derived from data collected in 2011–2012 and based on areas of cotton and spring melon fields located within 1,500 m from edges of fall melon fields was sufficient to retrospectively predict incidence of CYSDV infection in fall melon fields during 2007–2010. Nevertheless, the slope of the association between areas of spring melon fields and incidence of CYSDV infection was three times smaller in 2007–2010 than in 2011–2012, whereas the slope of the association between areas of cotton fields and incidence of CYSDV infection was consistent between study periods. Accordingly, predictions were more accurate when data on areas of cotton alone were used as a basis for prediction than when data on areas of cotton and spring melons were used.Validation of this statistical model confirms that crop isolation has potential for reducing incidence of CYSDV infection in fall melon fields inYuma County, although isolation from cotton may provide more consistent benefits than isolation from spring melon.

Tuta absoluta (Meyrick) (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae) is an important pest of tomato crops. It is native to South America and has rapidly extended its range into Mediterranean countries. The parasitoid Trichogramma achaeae Nagaraja and Nagarkatti (Hymenoptera: Trichogrammatidae) has been recommended as a possible biological control agent of this invasive pest. The pest and parasitoid were accidentally introduced into the Azores Islands and became well-established owing to the climate conditions of the region. During an undertaken survey to determine the presence of natural parasitism, 2.5% of the T. absoluta eggs were found to be parasitized by Tr. achaeae, and no other egg parasitoid was observed. Other Trichogramma species, Trichogramma cordubensis Vargas & Cabello, was also selected to test, along with Tr. achaeae, against T. absoluta on caged tomato plants (microhabitats), and the effectiveness of these parasitoids in limiting the T. absoluta populations was assessed. The results revealed that Tr. achaeae had a high parasitism and emergence rate (29.6% and 65.9%, respectively), relative to those rates observed for T. cordubensis (6.1% and 39.3%, respectively). Greenhouse assays were also carried out between May and July in 2013 and 2014 on commercially produced tomatoes with the aim of evaluating the potential of Tr. achaeae mass releases for the control of T. absoluta under these conditions. In the second year, we observed a reduction in the mean number of leaf mines and of eggs, larvae, and pupae of T. absoluta per leaflet, and an increase in the Tr. achaeae parasitism rate.

Spirotetramat, a lipid biosynthesis inhibitor, is effective against sucking insect pests but harmless to insect natural enemies. As spirotetramat can be registered for the management of sucking insect pests such as aphids and bugs in soybeans, we evaluated the insecticide against Riptortus pedestris (Fabricius) (Hemiptera: Alydidae), one of the most important soybean pests in Korea, as well as its effect on two of its important egg parasitoids, Ooencyrtus nezarae Ishii (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae) and Gryon japonicum (Ashmead; Hymenoptera: Platygastridae). Oral toxicities of five concentrations of spirotetramat (1.00, 0.50, 0.25, 0.13, and 0.06 ml/liter) were tested by feeding these test solutions to insects for 24 h after 12 h of starvation. The lethal median concentration (LC₅₀) for second instars of the bean bug was 0.3 ml/liter after 48 h while values for fourth instars and adults were 9.2 and 19.0 ml/ liter, respectively.The median lethal time (LT₅₀) for bean bugs when exposed to a concentration of 0.50 ml/liter was 1.2–1.5 times less than that of the control, while in G. japonicum and O. nezarae it was 1.1–1.2 times less than the control.These results show that spirotetramat is less toxic to the egg parasitoids of bean bug than to bean bug itself and would thus be useful in an integrated management program for this pest.

Chouioia cunea (Yang) (Hymenoptera: Eulophidae) is an indigenous pupal endoparasitoid that effectively attacks the exotic fall webworm Hyphantria cunea (Drury) (Lepidoptera: Arctiidae) in China. In this novel association, the parasitoid's venom has played an important role in subduing the immune defense of the host although little is known about the composition and functions of the parasitoid's venom. We therefore first identified the parasitoid's major venom proteins using electrospray ionization–mass spectrometry (ESI-MS). Approximately 207 different proteins were identified from C. cunea's venom; among them 26 types widely existed in other endoparasitoids' venom, including calreticulin and arginine kinase, which inhibited the host immune system.

The use of chemical pesticides particularly acaricides can reduce the control efficacy of natural enemies. The objectives of this study were 1) to evaluate the toxicity of three acaricides to the phytoseiid mite Neoseiulus bicaudus (Acari: Phytoseiidae) by spraying acaricides on N. bicaudus adult females and 2) to determine the effect of these acaricides on the functional response of different stages of N. bicaudus to the prey Tetranychus turkestani Ugarov & Nikolski (Acari: Tetranychidae). The results indicated that the survivability of N. bicaudus differed among the three acaricides tested. Pyridaben exhibited the highest toxicity to N. bicaudus not only because it caused higher mortality but also because it reduced the peak consumption for adults and increased the peak consumption for deutonymphs of N. bicaudus. The two other acaricides, azocyclotin and bifenazate, also slightly reduced the peak consumption, but not significantly, and the overall functional response was not different from control, untreated predatory mites. Bifenazate (143–4,300 mg a.i./liter) was relatively nontoxic to N. bicaudus (less than 10% mortality) but highly toxic to T. turkestani (more than 95% mortality). Accordingly, bifenazate is the most suitable for maintaining N. bicaudus in the field. Combining bifenazate and azocyclotin with N. bicaudus is a possible strategy for T. turkestani management.

Diamides are a novel insecticide group that act by disrupting insect muscle contraction. Recommended field rates (FRs) vary greatly among target pests and cropping systems, leading to variable risks for non-target organisms. We evaluated the toxicity of chlorantraniliprole to the predator Hippodamia convergens Guérin-Méneville (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae) by exposure to residues, topical application, and consumption of contaminated food.We also estimated lethal concentrations (LCs) of chlorantraniliprole in two target pests, cotton leafworm, Alabama argillacea (Hübner) (Lepidoptera: Erebidae), and tobacco budworm, Chloridea virescens (F.) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae), by exposing larvae to treated cotton, Gossypium hirsutum L., leaves and assessed residual activity at various intervals after application to cotton plants. Exposure to dried residues and ingestion of treated moth eggs resulted in similar toxicity to H. convergens, whereas topical application was a less toxic route of exposure. Regardless of exposure route, the LC₅₀s and LC₉₀s obtained for H. convergens were higher than those calculated for the pests. Residues at the upper limit of the LC₉₀ for C. virescens remained effective against this pest for up to 16 d, while exhibiting minor impacts on H. convergens. In contrast, the FR concentration of C. virescens caused significant mortality in H. convergens. The results suggest that the current FR for C. virescens is too high to be safe for H. convergens, and given the LCs observed for this pest in the present study, trials to explore the potential efficacy of lower FRs are justified. Depending on the concentration and route of exposure, this insecticide has the potential to be compatible with H. convergens.

In this article, the efficacy of nitric oxide (NO) fumigation to control bulb mites in the genus Rhizoglyphus and its effects on germination and growth of flower bulbs were studied. Bulb mites on infested peanuts were fumigated with NO at different concentrations under ultralow oxygen conditions in 1.9-liter jars for 4–48 h at various temperatures ranging from 2 to 20 °C. Bulb mites were susceptible to NO fumigation treatment. Efficacy of fumigation treatment increased with increased concentration, treatment time, and temperature within the ranges tested. Complete control of bulb mites was achieved in 24-h fumigation with 3.0% and 5.0% NO at 10 °C and with 2.0% NO at 20 °C. A fumigation treatment with 3.0% NO at 20 °C for 24 h, which was stronger than necessary for bulb mite control, was tested on bulbs of four flower varieties to determine its safety on germination and growth of the flower bulbs. The NO fumigation treatments did not significantly affect germination and growth of flower bulbs. This study showed that NO fumigation was effective against bulb mites on peanuts and did not affect germination and growth of flower bulbs. Therefore, NO fumigation has potential for postharvest control of bulb mites on flower bulbs.

Ozone is a powerful oxidant which can be used for killing insects and microorganisms. In this study, ozone was applied in the gaseous form to control two species of pests in stored dried figs. The samples of figs (50 g each) were infested with adults of Oryzaephilus surinamensis L. and larvae of Ephestia kuehniella Zeller and were subjected to different combinations of ozone concentrations (2, 3, and 5 ppm) and exposure times (15, 30, 45, 60, and 90 min). Changes in organoleptic properties (color, sweetness, firmness, aroma, and overall acceptability) during ozonation were studied. The results showed that the mortality rate increased with an increase in ozone concentration and exposure time. The total mortality of both pests was achieved at an ozone concentration of 5 ppm and exposure time of 90 min. Sensory evaluation showed that ozone only had a negligible effect on aroma. Therefore, the usage of ozone is recommended during the postharvest process instead of other chemical fumigants, such as methyl bromide and phosphine.

The navel orangeworm, Amyelois transitella (Walker) (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae), is a key pest of almonds and pistachios and is sometimes controlled using mating disruption as part of a program of integrated management. The formulation used has a single, nonattractive compound [(11Z,13Z )-hexadecadienal] as the active ingredient that is emitted from timed aerosol dispensers. This study compared this nonattractive, single-compound formulation with two aerosol formulations also containing two additional compounds [(11Z,13Z)-hexadecadien-1-ol and (3Z,6Z,9Z,12Z,15Z)-tricosapentaene] that are found in the pheromone glands, and that in combination with the aldehyde are attractive in wind-tunnel and field-attraction trials. An experiment in pistachios found 97% to 99% suppression of males captured in female-baited traps and 82–93% suppression of mating in sentinel females. Both assays revealed a trend to greater suppression by the more complete pheromone formulations. In almonds, where the abundance of navel orangeworm was lower, all three formulations suppressed males captured in traps and mating in sentinel females by >99%. Each of the formulations significantly reduced damage to Nonpareil almonds. In almonds, there were no significant differences among the formulations in disruption of sexual communication or in damage. These findings suggest that it may be possible to make mating disruption more cost-effective and to achieve higher levels of mating disruption by using attractive aerosol formulations to reduce the number of dispenser per ha. Such a formulation, however, would be more expensive to register in the United States than pheromones meeting the definition of straight-chain lepidopteran pheromone, including the currently used aldehyde-only formulation.

The Mediterranean fruit fly, Ceratitis capitata (Wiedemann), is an exotic pest of economic importance in several parts of the world. Systems for monitoring this pest employ mainly trimedlure (TML), a parapheromone specifically for males. Understanding the performance of these attractants under different conditions should contribute to better design trapping networks, better field data interpretation, and a more efficient use of the products. In this study, the release rate of TML was determined at 15, 25, and 35 °C, through plug weight loss over 80 d in a bioclimatic chamber. The attraction of TML of different ages was determined in field cage tests located in a mango orchard. Our results showed a direct relationship between TML release rate and temperature. Attraction was dependent on release rate. We found that TML storage for >4 yr at 27 °C affected the quantity of the active ingredient available for release. The results are discussed in terms of the effects of these conditions on the efficiency of trapping networks used for the detection of this pest and quality assurance for detection programs.

Probing behavior of Lygus lineolaris (Palisot de Beauvois) has previously been characterized with electropenetrography (EPG). Cell rupturing (CR) and ingestion (I) EPG waveforms were identified as the two main stylet-probing behaviors by adult L. lineolaris. However, characterization and identification of EPG waveforms are not complete until specific events of a particular waveform are correlated to insect probing. With the use of EPG, histology, microscopy, and chemical analysis, probing behavior of L. lineolaris on pin-head cotton squares was studied. Occurrences of waveforms CR and I were artificially terminated during the EPG recording. Histological samples of probed cotton squares were prepared and analyzed to correlate specific types and occurrences of feeding damage location and plant responses to insect feeding. Both CR and I occurred in the staminal column of the cotton square. Cell rupturing events elicited the production of dark-red deposits seen in histological staining that were demonstrated via chemical analysis to contain condensed tannins. We hypothesize that wounding and saliva secreted during CR triggered release of tannins, because tannin production was positively correlated with the number of probes with single CR events performed by L. lineolaris. Degraded plant tissue and tannins were removed from the staminal column during occurrence of waveform I. These results conclude the process of defining CR and I as probing waveforms performed by L. lineolaris on pin-head cotton squares. These biological definitions will now allow EPG to be used to quantitatively compare L. lineolaris feeding among different plant treatments, with the goal of improving pest management tactics against this pest.

The carob moth, Ectomyelois ceratoniae (Zeller; Lepidoptera: Pyralidae), is a devastating pest in high-value crops around the world. An efficient sex pheromone attractant is still missing for the management of this pest, because the major pheromone component is unstable. Host plant volatiles attract herbivore insects and have shown to have good potential to be exploited as alternatives or supplements to sex pheromones.To explore this possibility in carob moth, we assessed the attraction of moths to the volatiles of mature pistachio and different fruit stages of pomegranate, alone and in combination with virgin females, using sticky delta traps in pomegranate orchards of Iran. Traps baited with mature pomegranates, whether uncracked or cracked, infested or uninfested, caught significantly larger numbers of male and both mated and virgin female carob moths than unbaited traps. Traps baited with headspace extract of cracked pomegranate only caught mated females, while mature pistachio only attracted males. Pomegranate flowers, unripe pomegranate, and headspace extract of pistachio did not attract moths. Traps baited with cracked fruit caught more mated females than traps baited with uncracked fruit. Males were attracted similarly to traps baited with cracked-infested pomegranate as to traps baited with virgin females alone. Interestingly, the combination of cracked pomegranate and virgin female enhanced the attraction of virgin females.Together, our results show that volatiles from cracked pomegranates alone or in combination with female sex pheromone have great potential for application in pest management programs of carob moth.

Henosepilachna vigintioctopunctata (F.) is a widespread pest found on many solanaceous vegetables. The development and fecundity of H. vigintioctopunctata were studied on three cultivars (‘Zihong', ‘Eyou’, and ‘Baijiao') of eggplant, Solanum melongena L., using the two-sex life table theory. These results were then compared with similar parameters from a wild alternate host, Solanum nigrum. Our results showed that there were no significant differences between the developmental times of the larval stages, pupae, oviposition period, adult longevity, and the fecundity of H. vigintioctopunctata reared on the three eggplant cultivars.The survival rates of H. vigintioctopunctata larvae reared on the three eggplant cultivars were higher than that on S. nigrum. The fecundity of H. vigintioctopunctata adults reared on S. nigrum (724.12 eggs), however, was significantly higher than on each of the three eggplant cultivars.The values for the intrinsic rate of increase (r), finite rate of increase (λ), and net reproductive rate (R₀) for H. vigintioctopunctata when reared on S. nigrum were 0.1225 d^–1,1.1303 d^–1, and 299.6 offspring, respectively. Each of these was significantly higher than comparable values when reared on the cultivar Eyou and Baijiao but were not different from those reared on the Zihong. Our results indicated that H. vigintioctopunctata is well adapted to all tested host plant cultivars and that S. nigrum is an important alternate wild hostplant that may potentially contribute to future outbreaks of H. vigintioctopunctata if not taken into consideration when planning an integrated control strategy against the pest.

The cotton aphid, Aphis gossypii (Glover) (Hemiptera: Aphididae), is a major pest of many crops worldwide and a major cucumber plant pest inTaiwan. Because cotton aphids rapidly develop insecticide resistance and because of the insecticide residue problem, a safe and sustainable method is required to replace conventional chemical control methods. Methyl salicylate (MeSA), a herbivore-induced plant volatile, has been shown to affect aphids' behavior and attract the natural enemies of aphids for reducing their population.Therefore, this study examined the direct effects of MeSA on cotton aphids' settling preference, population development, and attractiveness to natural enemies.The efficiency of using MeSA and the commercial insecticide pymetrozine for reducing the cotton aphid population in laboratory and outdoor cucumber plant pot was also examined.The results showed no difference in winged aphids' settling preference and population development betweent he MeSA and blank treatments. Cucumber plants infested with cotton aphids and baited with 0.1% or 10% MeSA contained significantly higher numbers of the natural enemy of cotton aphids, namely Scymnus (Pullus) sodalis (Weise) (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae), and MeSA-treated cucumber plants contained a lower number of aphids. Significantly lower cotton aphid numbers were found on cucumber plants within a 10-m range of MeSA application. In addition, fruit yield showed no difference between the MeSA and pymetrozine treatments. According to our findings, 0.1% MeSA application can replace insecticides as a cotton aphid control tool. However, large-scale experiments are necessary to confirm its efficiency and related conservation biological control strategies before further use.

The soybean aphid, Aphis glycines Matsumura (Hemiptera: Aphididae), is an invasive species from Asia that has been the major economic insect pest of soybeans, Glycine max (L.) Merrill, since 2000. While use of soybeans expressing antibiosis and antixenosis is a well-studied strategy to manage this pest, aphid-tolerant soybeans remain underexplored. This study examined the relationship between cumulative aphid-days (CAD) and yield loss in the tolerant soybean KS4202 during two growing seasons to determine the economic injury levels (EILs) for soybean aphids on KS4202. Soybean aphid infestations were initiated during the soybean reproductive stages. A range of CAD treatments (3,000–45,000 CADs) were applied during the growing seasons. Aphid populations reached 45,000 CAD in 2011 and 38,000 CAD in 2013 in plots that were not treated with insecticides. It was estimated that the population doubling time was 9.4 d. In infested plots, soybean yield was reduced by 1.4–13.3%, equivalent to a 3.1% yield loss for every 10,000 CAD. Overall, most CAD treatments did not affect yield parameters, although CAD > 39,000 caused a significant reduction in most yield parameters. The EILs calculated for KS4202 ranged from 526 to 2,050 aphids/plant, which were approximately 2.5-fold higher when compared to EILs previously calculated for susceptible soybean.The adoption of soybean aphid tolerant soybean with higher EILs may help mitigate treatment delay problems by lengthening the treatment lead-time and possibly reduce the number of insecticide applications.

In response to the 2013 outbreak of sugarcane aphid, Melanaphis sacchari (Zehntner) (Hemiptera: Aphididae), on sorghum, Sorghum bicolor (L.), in North America, experiments were conducted at three southern U.S. grain sorghum production locations (Corpus Christi, TX; Winnsboro, LA; Rosenberg, TX). The objectives were to authenticate yield decline on susceptible hybrids (2014 and 2015) and to measure aphid population growth and natural enemy prevalence on susceptible and resistant hybrids with similar genetic background (2014).Yield decline on susceptible hybrids (Tx 2752/Tx430 and DKS53-67) was more substantial when aphid population growth accelerated quickly and peaked above 300 aphids per leaf (50 to nearly 100% yield decline). Location and year variation in maximum aphid density and cumulative aphid-days was high, with doubling time values on the susceptible hybrids ranging between 3.9 and 7.9 d. On resistant Tx2752/Tx2783, leaf injury and yield decline were not seen or less severe than on its paired susceptibleTx2752/Tx430. Aphids declined onTx2752/Tx2783 after initial colony establishment (Corpus Christi) or took about 60% longer to double in population size when compared with Tx2572/Tx430 (Winnsboro). The predominant natural enemy taxa were aphelinid mummies (Hymenoptera: Aphelinidae), ladybird beetles (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae), and sryphid flies (Diptera: Syrphidae), and they were more prevalent during flowering than prior to flowering.They were generally responsive to changes in aphid density of both susceptible and resistant hybrids, but variability points to need for further study. In future research, full season observations should continue as well as more detailed study of potential compatibility of sorghum resistance and biological control.

The effectiveness of a four-component “super lure” consisting of ethanol (E) and the cerambycid pheromones syn-2,3-hexanediol (D6), racemic 3-hydroxyhexan-2-one (K6), and racemic 3-hydroxyoctan-2-one (K8) on trap catches of Cerambycidae (Coleoptera) was determined in southeast United States with seven trapping experiments in 2011–2013. We captured 74 species of longhorn beetles in our three-year study. Ethanol significantly increased the mean catches of seven species and increased the number of cerambycid species detected. Traps with the “super lure” were effective for 8 of 13 species of Cerambycidae previously shown to be attracted to binary combinations of ethanol plus one of the three pheromones. However, the “super lure” was less effective for the remaining five species with catch reductions of 40–90% compared with combinations of ethanol and one or two of the pheromones. For example, K6 + K8 lures reduced catches of Anelaphus villosus (F.) in traps with E + D6 by 90%. Similarly, catches of Anelaphus pumilus (Newman) in traps with E + K6 + D6 were reduced by 50% with the addition of K8. Catches of Knulliana cincta (Drury) in traps with K6 + K8 lures were interrupted by D6, an effect negated by the addition of ethanol. Given the interruptive effects on trap catches of some species when lures are combined in a single trap, developing optimal lure blends to maximize detection efficacy will be a challenge for managers of detection programs for non-native invasive species of longhorn beetles.

From 2009 to 2013, we tested four systemic insecticide formulations and five application methods against the invasive goldspotted oak borer, Agrilus auroguttatus Schaeffer (Coleoptera: Buprestidae), in California. The insecticides were evaluated in three experiments: 1) 2009 remedial applications of emamectin benzoate (stem-injection) and imidacloprid (stem-injection and soil-injection); 2) 2009–2012 emamectin benzoate and imidacloprid initially applied at different times during the dormant season with varying injection technologies; and 3) 2013 dinotefuran applied to several tree diameter size classes. Adult leaf-feeding bioassays were used to assess the impact of systemic treatments against A. auroguttatus, whereas enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays determined the quantity of the active ingredient of insecticide residues in foliage. Imidacloprid (experiment 1) persisted at elevated levels in foliage of coast live oak, Quercus agrifolia Née, for 1.5 yr following stem injections. Stem injections of emamectin benzoate (experiment 2) sometimes significantly decreased survival in adults fed foliage from treated Q. agrifolia, and both the emamectin benzoate and imidacloprid treatments reduced adult feeding in some trials. Imidacloprid residues in Q. agrifolia and California black oak, Quercus kelloggii Newb., foliage remained at elevated levels (>10 µg/g) ∼2 yr postapplication. In 2013 (experiment 3), dinotefuran residues were highest in foliage collections 2 wk postapplication and greatest in smaller diameter oaks, but insecticide treatment had no effect on survival or frass production by adults fed foliage from treated trees. Systemic injections of emamectin benzoate and imidacloprid applied during the dormant season to uninfested or lightly infested oaks can reduce adult A. auroguttatus survival and maturation feeding.

We tested 3-methylcyclohex-2-en-1-one (MCH) and an Acer kairomone blend (AKB) as repellent semiochemicals for area and single tree protection to prevent spruce beetle (Dendroctonus rufipennis Kirby) attacks at locations in Utah and New Mexico. In the area protection study, we compared host infestation rates of MCH applications at three densities (20, 40, and 80 g MCH ha^–1) against a control treatment over 0.64 ha plots centered within ∼1.25 ha treatment blocks. All treatments included two baited funnel traps within the plot to assure spruce beetle pressure. Following beetle attack, plots were surveyed for new spruce beetle attacks and to quantify stand characteristics. The probability of more severe spruce beetle attacks was significantly reduced, by ∼50%, in each of the MCH area treatments compared with the control treatment but there was no significant treatment difference among the MCH deployment densities. For the single tree protection study, we compared attack rates of MCH, Acer kairomone blend (AKB), and MCH plus AKB on spruce beetle-baited trees against bait-only trees. Each treatment was applied over a range of host diameters to test for host size effects. Seventy-five percent of control trees were mass-attacked, about one-third of MCH- and AKB-alone spruce was mass-attacked, and no MCH plus AKB spruce were mass-attacked. These results suggest that MCH alone is a marginal area and single tree protectant against spruce beetle but that deployment with other repellents can significantly increase treatment efficacy.

Xylosandrus germanus (Blandford) has caused increasing damage in high-density New York apple orchards since 2013, resulting in tree decline and death. We documented their occurrence and timing in > 50 orchards using ethanol-baited traps from 2014 to 2016. First captures ranged from 48 to 83 degree days (base 10 °C) from 1 January. Captures were numerically higher at the orchard–woods interface than within the orchard interior, but differences were not significant in locations with lower populations. Control using insecticide trunk sprays was tested in potted, waterlogged apple trees placed in orchards and nurseries, and inside wooded areas adjacent to orchards. A verbenone repellent was used in combination with trunk sprays to improve control. Overall, insecticide sprays were inconsistent and marginal in preventing new infestations. Chlorpyrifos significantly reduced infestations versus lambda-cyhalothrin and untreated trees at one location in the 2015 orchard trials, and versus untreated trees at one location in the 2016 nursery trials, but otherwise performed no better than other treatments. The addition of verbenone to either the check or permethrin treatments resulted in significantly fewer attack sites containing brood at one orchard site in 2016. Chlorpyrifos, lambda-cyhalothrin, and permethrin significantly reduced the number of attack sites containing adults compared with untreated trees at one nursery trial location in 2016, but were otherwise ineffective in reducing numbers of trees in other locations and infestation categories. We found several fungal and bacterial species associated with X. germanus and its infestation of apples. These microbes likely play a minimal role in apple decline.

The annual bluegrass weevil, Listronotus maculicollis (Kirby), is a highly destructive pest of golf course turfgrass in eastern North America. Previous research has demonstrated that females prefer to oviposit within short-mown turfgrasses (<1.25 cm), and these offspring have improved fitness traits compared with larvae developing in higher-mowed turf. However, damage to putting green turf (<3.55 mm) is rarely reported. We investigated whether this phenomenon was due to adult removal through mowing or an inability of larvae to develop within a shortened plant. Greenhouse studies revealed that between 26% and 38% of adults were removed when turf was mowed at 2.54 mm (0.100 in), but the effect diminished with increasing mowing heights. The majority of adults survived mowing, indicating a potential for adults to reinvade turf stands adjacent to areas where grass clippings are discarded. Females oviposited in all mowing height treatments in laboratory and field experiments. However, behavior was influenced by plant height, as significantly fewer eggs were placed inside of the turfgrass stem at the lowest mowing height. Larval development was not affected by egg placement or turf height, and significant numbers of larvae were capable of developing to damaging stages (fourth- and fifth-instar larvae) in all treatments. Our findings suggest that L. maculicollis poses a threat to putting green-height turf, but the probability of damage occurring and need for insecticide applications may be lessened on low-mown surfaces. Future studies are needed to determine factors that influence L. maculicollis movement within the turfgrass canopy to optimize mechanical control.

Larval stages of cabbage maggot, Delia radicum (L.) (Diptera: Anthomyiidae), attack the roots of Brassica crops and cause severe economic damage. In the Salinas Valley of California, Brassica crops are often planted after successive lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.) crops. The interval between postharvest soil incorporation of lettuce residue and the subsequent Brassica crop can be as short as 7 d, which could influence D. radicum infestation on broccoli (Brassica oleracea var. italica Plenck). In 2014 and 2015, the effect of intervals between crops (IBC) on D. radicum infestation was evaluated. The treatments were 7, 20, 33, and 48 d IBC, and NL (no lettuce), 7, 21, 36, and 49 d IBC in 2014 and 2015, respectively. Insect counts and feeding damage on broccoli was assessed during 3–6 wk after planting. Adult Delia fly captures were significantly greater at 7 d than 36–49 d IBC in both years. In both years, D. radicum eggs collected were significantly greater at 7 d than at 33 d or 36 d IBC plots. Larvae collected were significantly greater at 7 d IBC than all other treatments in 2014, but not in 2015. Similarly, severity of feeding injury was significantly greater in 7 d than 33 d or 48 d IBC in 2014, but not in 2015. In 2015, broccoli with no prior lettuce had significantly lower Delia flies and D. radicum egg densities than 7 d or 21 d IBC. The implication of these results as a cultural control tactic for D. radicum infestation is discussed.

Billbugs are native pests of turfgrass throughout North America, primarily managed with preventive, calendar-based insecticide applications. An existing degree-day model (lower development threshold of 10°C, biofix 1 March) developed in the eastern United States for bluegrass billbug, Sphenophorus parvulus (Gyllenhal; Coleoptera: Curculionidae), may not accurately predict adult billbug activity in the western United States, where billbugs occur as a species complex. The objectives of this study were 1) to track billbug phenology and species composition in managed Utah and Idaho turfgrass and 2) to evaluate model parameters that best predict billbug activity, including those of the existing bluegrass billbug model. Tracking billbugs with linear pitfall traps at two sites each in Utah and Idaho, we confirmed a complex of three univoltine species damaging turfgrass consisting of (in descending order of abundance) bluegrass billbug, hunting billbug (Sphenophorus venatus vestitus Chittenden; Coleoptera: Curculionidae), and Rocky Mountain billbug (Sphenophorus cicatristriatus Fabraeus; Coleoptera: Curculionidae). This complex was active from February through mid-October, with peak activity in mid-June. Based on linear regression analysis, we found that the existing bluegrass billbug model was not robust in predicting billbug activity in Utah and Idaho. Instead, the model that best predicts adult activity of the billbug complex accumulates degree-days above 3°C after 13 January.This model predicts adult activity levels important for management within 11 d of observed activity at 77% of sites. In conjunction with outreach and cooperative networking, this predictive degree-day model may assist end users to better time monitoring efforts and insecticide applications against billbug pests in Utah and Idaho by predicting adult activity.

Temperature plays an important role in the growth, development, and geographic distribution of insects. There is convincing evidence that heat-shock proteins (HSPs) play important roles in helping organisms adapt to thermal stress.To better understand the physiological and ecological influence of thermal stress on the different development stages of Bemisia tabaci (Gennadius) (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae) Mediterranean species (MED), nymphs and adults were shocked with temperatures of 35, 38, and 41°C for 1 and 2 h, respectively, and the survival rate, fecundity, and developmental duration were investigated in the laboratory. The expression levels of the hsp40, hsp70, and hsp90 genes were assessed using real-time PCR. The results indicate that the survival rates of the nymphs and adults decreased with increased temperature. A 2-h heat shock at 41°C induced a significant reduction in fecundity in adults and an increase in developmental duration in young nymphs. Hsp90 showed higher temperature responses to thermal stress than hsp40 or hsp70. The expression levels of the hsps in the adults were significantly down-regulated by a 2-h heat shock at 41°C compared with that by a 1-h treatment. A significant decrease in the expression levels of the hsps also occurred in the adults when the temperature increased from 38 to 41°C for the 2-h treatment, whereas no significant decrease occurred in the nymphs. Compared with previous studies, we provide some evidence indicating that MED has the potential to adapt to a wider temperature range than the Middle East-Asia Minor 1 species.

The jinggangmycin (JGM) is a widely used fungicide for controlling the rice sheath blight, Rhizoctonia solani, in China. Previous experiments under lab conditions showed that JGM foliar spray suppressed Sogatella furcifera (Horvath) reproduction. However, the molecular mechanisms of JGM-driven changes in S. furcifera reproduction are unclear. Therefore, we selected carboxylesterase precursor (EST-1) as a target gene for silencing by RNAi based on gene expression profiles. The present results demonstrated that JGM and control + dsSfEST-1 treatments significantly reduced the number of eggs laid (down by 58% and 54%, respectively), oviposition period (down by 57% and 38%, respectively), and longevity (down by 32% and 38%, respectively) in adult females compared with untreated controls, while no pronounced differences in the preoviposition period were observed. Meanwhile, the dietary control + dsSfEST-1 treatment also severely impeded protein synthesis, specifically soluble ovarian protein content (down by 20% and 24%, respectively) and soluble sugar content (down by 42% and 35%, respectively), which led to stunted growth and reduced body weight in adult females. We thereby speculate that downregulated SfEST-1 expression may be one molecular mechanism underlying JGM-driven reproduction in S. furcifera.

An insect resistance monitoring program was developed for Mexico to accommodate the commercial introduction and stewardship of Bt cotton. Between 1998 and 2015, field-collected geographic populations of Helicoverpa zea (Boddie) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) were evaluated against Cry1Ac and Cry2Ab proteins of Bacillus thuringiensis Berliner (Bacillales: Bacillaceae) to establish baseline susceptibility data before the commercial use of Bollgard (Cry1Ac) and Bollgard II (Cry1Ac and Cry2Ab) cotton. An annual monitoring program was subsequently established in which a single diagnostic concentration of each Bt protein was used in a diet overlay bioassay. The diagnostic concentration represented the concentration where larvae, evaluated in baseline studies, were reduced in weight by ≥97% relative to untreated controls or failed to molt to third instar after 5 d. In the monitoring study, populations were tested against Cry1Ac from 1998 through 2015, and against Cry2Ab from 2002 through 2004 and again from 2007 through 2015. None of the Cry1Ac-exposed larvae tested during the 18-yr period reached the third larval instar after an exposure of 5 d, and weight reduction relative to untreated control larvae was uniform at about 98–99%. For the 12 yr of Cry2Ab monitoring, no larvae reached third instar, and weight reduction was uniform at >97% relative to controls.These results indicate that H. zea susceptibility to Cry1Ac and Cry2Ab has not changed during the period Bollgard and Bollgard II have been cultivated in Mexico.

Western bean cutworm, Striacosta albicosta (Smith) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae), is a pest of corn (Zea mays L.) that has recently expanded its range into Ontario, Canada. Control of S. albicosta damage to corn hybrids containing event TC1507-expressing Cry1F Bacillus thuringiensis protein alone or pyramided with event MON 89034 expressing Cry1A.105 and Cry2Ab2 Bt proteins was tested in 2011–2015 in Ontario in small- and large-scale field plots with natural infestation. In 2011, significantly lower incidence and severity of kernel damage was sustained by Cry1F × Cry1A.105 + Cry2Ab2 corn compared with a non-Bt near-isogenic hybrid. However, from 2012 to 2015, there was no difference in incidence or severity of damage comparing non-Bt hybrids with Cry1F hybrids alone or pyramided with Cry1A.105 and Cry2Ab2 planted as a pure stand or with an integrated refuge (95% Bt: 5% non-Bt seeds). In 2015, neonate larvae derived from Ontario field-collections were tested in concentration-response diet-overlay bioassays with lyophilized Cry1F protein at concentrations up to 75 µg cm^–2. The concentrations at which mortality of 50% (LC₅₀) of the collections occurred ranged from approximately 10 µg cm^–2 (F₀) to >28 µg cm^–2 (F₁) in a 7-d bioassay, indicating relative insensitivity to Cry1F. Results from field experiments, laboratory bioassays, and the history of exposure to Cry1F in corn show that S. albicosta in Ontario are not controlled by Cry1F-expressing corn hybrids and provide evidence for the conclusion that the evolution of resistance to Cry1F has occurred.

The use of neonicotinoids in citrus (Rutaceae) has increased substantially to help manage the Asian citrus psyllid, Diaphorina citri Kuwayama (Hemiptera: Liviidae), a vector of the devastating citrus disease, huanglongbing (HLB). In citrus pest management programs, neonicotinoids are most often applied to the soil as a drench and move through xylem channels from the roots into the foliage. We developed a novel assay to quantify the dose required to kill D. citri following ingestion and compare it with the dose required to kill by contact. The LC₅₀ of the laboratory strain for ingestion of imidacloprid, thiamethoxam, and clothianidin were each approximately 10-fold greater than the respective LC₅₀ by contact exposure. Four field populations were tested to validate comparative exposure of the laboratory strain to imidacloprid and determine the relative susceptibility of field populations to imidacloprid by exposure through ingestion and contact. The contact assay exhibited low (<10) RR₅₀ values for the Vero Beach and Labelle populations when compared to the ingestion assay method. High (>10) RR₅₀ values were observed for the Lake Placid and Lake Alfred populations using the contact and the ingestion method. This research demonstrates that the ingestion assay method described herein is more sensitive in detection of low-level resistance and should be the standard methodology used in monitoring for resistance to systemic insecticides for this global pest. We found D. citri populations with a lower than expected susceptibility to neonicotinoids in the field, which warrants the implementation of resistance management practices to preserve the utility of soil-applied neonicotinoids in citrus.

Soybean aphid, Aphis glycines Matsumura (Hemiptera: Aphididae), is a damaging invasive pest of soybean in the upper Midwest. Threshold-based insecticide applications are the primary control method for soybean aphid, but few insecticide groups are available (i.e., pyrethroids, organophosphates, and neonicotinoids). To quantify current levels of soybean aphid susceptibility to pyrethroids in the upper Midwest and monitor for insecticide resistance, leaf-dip bioassays were performed with λ-cyhalothrin in 2013–2015, and glass-vial bioassays were performed with λ-cyhalothrin and bifenthrin in 2015 and 2016. Soybean aphids were collected from 27 population-years in Minnesota and northern Iowa, and were compared with a susceptible laboratory colony with no known insecticide exposure since discovery of soybean aphid in North America in 2000. Field-collected aphids from some locations in leaf-dip and glass-vial bioassays had significantly lower rates of insecticide-induced mortality compared with the laboratory population, although field population susceptibility varied by year. In response to sublethal concentrations of λ-cyhalothrin, adult aphids from some locations required higher concentrations of insecticide to reduce nymph production compared with the laboratory population. The most resistant field population demonstrated 39-fold decreased mortality compared with the laboratory population. The resistance documented in this study, although relatively low for most field populations, indicates that there has been repeated selection pressure for pyrethroid resistance in some soybean aphid populations. Integrated pest management and insecticide resistance management should be practiced to slow further development of soybean aphid resistance to pyrethroids.

This study was conducted using the glass chamber method to determine the susceptibility status of the dengue vector, Aedes aegypti (L.) from 11 states in Malaysia to commercial mosquito coils containing four different active ingredients, namely metofluthrin, d-allethrin, d-trans allethrin, and prallethrin. Aedes aegypti exhibited various knockdown rates, ranging from 14.44% to 100.00%, 0.00% to 61.67%, 0.00% to 90.00%, and 0.00% to 13.33% for metofluthrin, d-allethrin, d-trans allethrin, and prallethrin, respectively. Overall, mortality rates ranging from 0.00% to 78.33% were also observed among all populations. Additionally, significant associations were detected between the knockdown rates of metofluthrin and d-allethrin, and between metofluthrin and d-trans allethrin, suggesting the occurrence of cross-resistance within pyrethroid insecticides. Overall, this study revealed low insecticidal activity of mosquito coils against Ae. aegypti populations in Malaysia, and consequently may provide minimal personal protection against mosquito bites.

Pest management plans for house flies, Musca domestica L. (Diptera: Muscidae), often include insecticides. Because of resistance and environmental concerns with traditional insecticides, safe new pesticides and pesticide formulations are needed. The insecticidal potential of two sugar alcohols, xylitol and erythritol, against adult house flies was assessed. Flies consumed both xylitol and erythritol. The proportion of flies that exhibited the proboscis extension reflex, which is associated with feeding, did not differ significantly between the sugar alcohols and sucrose in an experiment with 20% solutions and older flies, but was less for the sugar alcohols in an experiment with 2M solutions and younger flies. When presented alone or mixed with sucrose, both sugar alcohols significantly decreased fly survival relative to just sucrose. There was a strong negative relationship with concentration and mean days survived for xylitol, but no significant relationship for erythritol or sucrose. Relative to sucrose alone, a temporary exposure to xylitol, but not to erythritol, decreased survival when sucrose was subsequently available. Although xylitol and erythritol can both decrease survival of house flies and would meet the criteria for organic farming, deaths were often not very immediate. However, continued investigation of a variety of sweeteners as feeding-stimulant alternatives to sucrose is still useful, to minimize the risk of house flies evolving resistance to the sugar in baits. Our analysis of already published data on house flies that had been repeatedly exposed to a sucrose-based bait is consistent with the evolution of sucrose-feeding avoidance.

The accumulated damage from elephant weevil larvae, Orthorhinus cylindrirostris (F.) (Coleoptera: Curculionidae), reduces blueberry yield and shortens the productive lifespan of blueberry plants by several years. Selective breeding to develop pest-resistant blueberry cultivars is a possible control option, but the relationship between O. cylindrirostris populations, plant damage, and blueberry yield has not been described. A field survey of 17 blueberry cultivars was conducted on a commercial farm to measure O. cylindrirostris populations (emergence holes and adult numbers) and yield from plants of different ages (2–12 yr). Blueberry plants accumulated damage over time, that is, older plants tended to have more O. cylindrirostris emergence holes than younger plants. All cultivars received some level of O. cylindrirostris attack but this did not always lead to yield losses. Newer cultivars that have been in production since 2000 were less susceptible to O. cylindrirostris than older cultivars. Removal of highly susceptible cultivars from commercial blueberry farms may reduce O. cylindrirostris populations. There is potential for selective breeding to increase plant resistance to O. cylindrirostris if the specific resistance mechanisms can be identified in blueberry.

The life history, feeding indices, and digestive enzymatic activity of Tribolium castaneum (Herbst) (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae) were studied on flours of 10 commodities (artificial diet, barley, cowpea, maize, millet, rice, sorghum, soybean, triticale, and wheat) at 30 ± 1°C, relative humidity 75 ± 5% (12 h photophase).The maximum survival rate of immature stages was on artificial diet (75%), and the minimum rate was on soybean flour (30%). The duration of immature stages was significantly longer on soybean flour (33.3 ± 0.6 days) than on other tested flours of commodities. Record for the highest fecundity of this insect was on artificial diet (418.9 ± 9.1 eggs/female) and the lowest was on soybean flour (121.5 ± 7.0 eggs/female).The results showed that fourth instar of T. castaneum reared on soybean flour had the lowest relative growth rate (RGR; 0.141 ± 0.011 mg/mg/d) and efficiency of conversion of ingested food (34.59 ± 0.009%).The amylolytic activity of fourth instar was the highest when larvae were fed on barley flour (8.97 ± 0.25 mU/min/larva) and the lowest when they were fed on wheat flour (1.64 ± 0.23 mU/min/larva). Larvae exhibited a single strong band of amylolytic activity among different flours of commodities; the lowest and highest intensity was for larvae fed on wheat and barley flours, respectively.The zymogram of the general protease activity showed four main bands, which the first band was unique for triticale- and artificial diet-fed larvae. The results of this study indicated that soybean flour was the most unsuitable food for feeding and development of T. castaneum.

Here, we describe several field experiments that evaluated potential problems with current methods of trapping cerambycid beetles using panel traps baited with synthesized pheromones. Positioning traps at least 5 m apart in linear transects was effective in preventing unbaited traps from intercepting beetles that were flying to baited traps, which would result in interference between treatments. There was no evidence that traps baited with a strong attractant drew beetles away from traps baited with weaker attractants, which would lead to the erroneous conclusion that the latter have no activity. Unbaited panel traps were minimally attractive to cerambycid beetles, and unlikely to intercept them passively in flight. Finally, dose–response experiments revealed that trap catch of cerambycids was positively associated with pheromone release rates. Overall, our results generally validated current methods of trapping cerambycids using traps baited with pheromones.

Harlequin bug, Murgantia histrionica (Hahn), is an important pest of Brassica crops in the southern United States. Regional populations are highly variable and unpredictable from farm-to-farm, and therefore accurate monitoring of activity would greatly improve IPM decision-making and the timing of control tactics. To our knowledge, there is no monitoring device or proven trapping system for this pest. We contribute new knowledge of harlequin bug visual ecology, which will aid in the development of an effective trap. In both lab and field color choice experiments, harlequin bug adults and large nymphs responded positively to green and black colors, and statistically less frequently to yellow, white, purple, or red with the exception of adult females, which were most attracted to red and green in the lab, but green and black in the field. We conclude that future trapping devices for harlequin bug should be green or black in color.

Variation in male body size, age, and prior sexual experience may all influence male mating success in tephritid fruit flies. Bactrocera tryoni (Froggatt) is an Australian pest tephritid for which the sterile insect technique (SIT) is being actively pursued, and for which information on what makes males more competitive is urgently needed. Pair-wise competitive mating trials were run using laboratory-reared flies in walk-in field cages, evaluating young, large, and virgin B. tryoni males against old, small, and nonvirgin males, respectively. Analysis of male sexual competitiveness indices revealed that young and large males obtained significantly more copulations compared to old and small males; there was no significant difference between virgin and nonvirgin males in obtaining mates. While SIT programs will always release young males, the results do show that rearing programs which focus on producing larger males, rather than greater numbers of smaller males, will produce more sexually competitive males. After release, virgin SIT males will not be at a competitive disadvantage with sexually experienced males based on prior mating experience.