Nasal and tonsillar samples were collected from 14 free-ranging clinically healthy Rocky Mountain bighorn sheep (Ovis canadensis canadensis) and 10 domestic sheep (Ovis aries). We identified 194 bacterial isolates, including 101 from bighorn and 93 from domestic sheep. Of these isolates, 115 were gram-positive and 79 were gram-negative. Staphylococcus species were the most numerous gram-positive organisms and had a higher incidence in samples from domestic than from bighorn sheep. In contrast Streptococcus species were present in higher numbers in samples from bighorn sheep. Pasteurella haemolytica, the most common gram-negative bacterium, was isolated from five of five tonsillar but from none of ten nasal samples of domestic sheep, and from seven of eight tonsillar and three of ten nasal samples of bighorn sheep. Most bacteria isolated were considered opportunistic pathogens. However, of the bacteria isolated, P. haemolytica, P. multocida, and Actinomyces pyogenes are most frequently associated with respiratory disease.

Thirty-two juvenile green turtles (Chelonia mydas) were captured alive in Kaneohe Bay, Island of Oahu, Hawaii, during September 1991. Ten of the turtles sampled were afflicted with green turtle fibropapillomatosis (GTFP) in varying degrees of severity. Virus isolation attempts were negative in all individuals. Using nasopharyngeal and cloacal swabs, we isolated 28 Gram negative bacteria, five Gram positive cocci, Bacillus spp., and diphtheroids. The most common isolates included Pseudomonas fluorescens (68%), P. putrefaciens (66%), Vibrio alginolyticus (50%), non-hemolytic Streptococcus (50%), V. damsela (47%), and V. fluvialis (47%). Chlamydial antigen was detected in four of the turtles sampled. The primary lesions in animals with GTFP were hyperplasia of squamous epithelial cells and mesodermal proliferation with a marked degree of orthokeratotic hyperkeratosis. Mites, leeches, and other organisms were associated with the surface of papilloma lesions. The etiologic agent of GTFP was not isolated.

Modified Cary and Blair transport medium (MCB) was evaluated for recovery of Pasteurella spp. from pharyngeal swabs of healthy Rocky Mountain bighorn sheep (Ovis canadensis canadensis). In experiment one, three pharyngeal swabs were collected from each of 25 bighorns. Pasteurella haemolytica was recovered from 21 of 25 swabs tested almost immediately and from 16 of 25 swabs held in MCB medium at about 22 C for 24 hr before testing (P > 0.10). Recovery of P. haemolytica decreased (P < 0.005) to 1 of 25 when swabs were held in MCB medium at about 22 C for 48 hr before testing. In experiment two, four pharyngeal swabs were collected from each of ten bighorns and held in MCB medium at about 5 C for ≤5, 24, 48, or 72 hr prior to testing. Recovery was unaffected by storage at 5 C; P. haemolytica was isolated from all 40 of these samples. All Pasteurella spp. isolates were nonhemolytic P. haemolytica. In experiment one, most isolates were serotype 4; in experiment two, serotype 3 was most common. We propose that MCB medium is effective for transporting bighorn sheep pharyngeal swabs for P. haemolytica screening because it imposes minimal or no effect on recovery when held ≤24 hr at 22 C or ≤72 hr at 5 C.

The course of Borrelia burgdorferi-infection in Columbian black-tailed deer (Odocoileus hemionus columbianus), its effect on the health of these animals, and their reservoir competence for fleas were evaluated experimentally. Four yearling females inoculated intramuscularly with 10⁸ organisms of the CA4 strain of B. burgdorferi, and two yearling males unexposed to spirochetes, were monitored daily for 3 mo. Spirochetes were reisolated from the blood of three does at 14 or 70 days postinjection, and from several tissues of the fourth doe at necropsy. Considerable antigenic heterogeneity was observed among the reisolates as determined by sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. Only two of the four infected deer developed significant antibodies (≥ 1:128) to B. burgdorferi with titers persisting for ≤2 mo. Hematological values were highly variable and the degree of variation observed was much greater than that reported previously for Columbian black-tailed deer or other subspecies of mule deer. Infected deer did not manifest signs of Lyme disease. On histologic examination of eight tissues per deer, we observed a minimal hepatic lesion in all animals exposed to B. burgdorferi. No spirochetes were detected in 367 fleas (Pulex irritans) that had naturally infested these deer; thus this flea probably is an inefficient host of B. burgdorferi.

Sarcocysts were found in striated muscle of 21 adult wading birds among 145 examined grossly and 70 examined histologically (calculated prevalence = 24%), and in none of 332 immature wading birds examined from Florida (USA). Six of 12 species of ciconiforms were infected (Ardea herodias, Casmerodius albus, Egretta caerulea, Nyctanassa violacea, Butorides striatus, Eudocimus albus). Cysts were filamentous, usually extended the entire length of the muscle fiber, and were visible grossly in 33% of the positive cases. We concluded from ultrastructural examination of cysts that the same species of Sarcocystis may occur in all species of wading birds in Florida; however, two cyst diameters were noted that appeared to differ in their distribution by host species.

We examined 371 wood ducks (Aix sponsa) for hematozoa from two localities in Missouri (USA) in 1989 and 1990. Thirty-seven (10%) harbored one or more species of blood parasites. Haemoproteus nettionis was the most common parasite, occurring in 36 (10%) of the birds. Leucocytozoon simondi was found in two (0.5%) and microfilaria occurred in five (1%) of the wood ducks examined. Infections were more prevalent in adults (18%) than in immature birds (2%). There was no difference in prevalence between sex, location, or year. Based on seasonal prevalence, transmission probably did not occur at either location in the summer. Increased prevalence in the winter samples occurred after northern wood ducks migrated into the sample areas.

Sixteen 6-mo-old battery-reared ring-necked pheasants (Phasianus colchicus) were inoculated orally with 10⁵ (group A, ME 49 strain, five birds), 10⁴ (group B, ME 49 strain, six birds) and 10⁴ (group C, GT-1 strain, five birds) Toxoplasma gondii oocysts. The pheasants in groups A and B remained clinically normal. One of the pheasants in group C died 19 days after inoculation (DAI); T. gondii was found in histological sections of brain and heart and encephalitis, myocarditis and enteritis were the main lesions. Toxoplasma gondii was isolated by bioassays from pooled tissues of five of six pheasants in group B killed 36 DAI. Toxoplasma gondii was isolated from the brains, hearts and skeletal muscles of each of the four pheasants inoculated with the GT-1 strain (group C), and from the brains of four, hearts of three and skeletal muscles of four of five pheasants inoculated with the ME 49 strain (group A). All pheasants developed high (1: 1,600–1:25,600) antibody titers to T. gondii in the modified agglutination test (MAT) 36 to 68 DAI. Antibody titers detected with the MAT were higher than those detected in the indirect hemagglutination and latex agglutination tests. Antibodies were not detected in 1:4 dilution of pheasant sera with the Sabin-Feldman dye test.

The viability of Notocotylus attenuatus metacercariae was 80% at 20 wk post-encystment (PE) and decreased to 10% at 24 wk PE. Cyst viability was influenced by the duration of cercarial swimming activity prior to encystment, by the occurrence of cyst associations, and by the type of cyst storage. This is the first report on cyst associations formed by Notocotylidae cercariae. Cyst associations were formed only by cercariae encysting shortly after their emergence from snails. In cyst associations metacercariae did not overlap, but were separated by regular distances ranged from 20.4 to 24.5 μm x̄ = 22.3 μm, SE = 0.41. The mucoid materials which formed the external cyst wall covered the areas between parasites seven if distances were comparable with the cyst size. In cyst associations, metacercariae in the water and those located close to the water were viable up to 24 wk PE. Cercariae with extended swimming activity did not form associations even when present in numbers, ≤50 cercariae per cm³. The cysts established by these cercariae had a thin external cyst wall, and were not viable by 12 wk PE.

We tested 276 sera from 18 free-ranging black-tailed and mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus) herds in California (USA) collected from 1987 to 1991 in five biogeographical habitat types, for antibodies against eight infectious disease agents. Overall antibody prevalence was 56% for Anaplasma marginale, 31% for Borrelia burgdorferi, 16% for bluetongue virus serotype 17, 15% for epizootic hemorrhagic disease virus, 7% for Coxiella burnetii and Toxoplasma gondii, respectively, and 0% for bovine leukosis virus and caprine arthritis/encephalitis virus, respectively. Antibodies against Lyme borreliosis and anaplasmosis were found in deer throughout California, but antibodies against bluetongue and epizootic hemorrhagic disease were most prevalent in deer from southern California.

Lead poisoning and other causes of mortality of 115 trumpeter (Cygnus buccinator) and 21 tundra (C. columbianus) swans from northwestern Washington (USA) from 1986 to 1992 are reported. Necropsies were performed on all 136 swans, liver lead analysis conducted on 110, and differentiation between lead and steel shot pellets recovered from gizzards in 97 swans. Shot pellets were detected in 44 (32%) of 136 gizzards. Lead shot was recovered from 32 (33%) of 97 gizzards and steel shot from 16 (16%). Mean intensity of lead shot in gizzards was nearly five times greater than steel shot. Thirty-nine (35%) of 110 livers had lead concentrations diagnostic of lead poisoning (>6 ppm, wet weight). Mean (±SE) weight for 61 non-lead poisoned trumpeter swans was 9.8 (±0.30) kg, significantly heavier (P < 0.05) than 30 lead poisoned trumpeters (x̄ = 6.8 ± 0.23 kg). There was no significant difference (P > 0.05) in weights between lead poisoned (n = 9) and non-lead poisoned (n = 12) tundra swans. Lead poisoning was the primary cause of death, accounting for 29% of the mortalities. Other causes of mortality identified were aspergillosis (17%), illegally shot (11%), and other traumatic factors (12%). The cause of death for 43 swans was not determined. Lead poisoning from the ingestion of lead shot continues to be a principal cause of mortality in swans overwintering in northwestern Washington.

A combination of the dissociative anesthetic ketamine hydrochloride (KH) and the sedative xylazine hydrochloride (XH) was used to immobilize 31 wild Iberian lynx (Felis pardina) 45 times at Doñana National Park, Spain. A mean (±SE) dose of 4.6 (±0.2) mg/kg KH and 4.0 (±0.2) mg/kg XH resulted in mean (±SE) induction time of 5.6 (±0.3) min and mean (±SE) first reaction time of 59.3 (±6.5) min. Convulsions occurred four times (9%), but with no noteworthy consequences.

Hematological parameters were measured in 408 blood samples collected over a 30-mo period from 254 captive mountain gazelles (Gazella gazella) in Saudi Arabia. We evaluated the influence of sex, age, capture method, and season, on these parameters. Evaluations also were made with a small number of anesthetized animals. Males had a significantly higher mean corpuscular volume (MCV) and mean corpuscular hemoglobin (MCH) than females. There was no observed neutrophil: lymphocyte ratio shift for either sex during the first months of life. The effects of different capture methods generally were similar in males and females and included a significantly lower MCV and MCH after quick capture. Animals undergoing slow capture had a significantly lower mean corpuscular hemoglobin concentration (MCHC), and very pronounced stress neutrophilia. We propose that this stress neutrophilia caused the permanently high neutrophil : lymphocyte ratio (62:36 average for all gazelles tested) and the lack of a neutrophil: lymphocyte shift in young animals. Erythrocyte counts were significantly higher in summer, while packed cell volume and hemoglobin concentration were the same in summer and winter; thus there was a significantly lower MCV and MCH, and a significantly higher MCHC in summer in both sexes. Fibrinogen varied significantly by sex, age, capture method, and anesthesia.

Water, lipid, and mineral composition were determined for metacarpals, phalanges, livers, and antlers from 219 free-ranging white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) collected on six properties in East Feliciana Parish, Louisiana (USA) to provide baseline data and to identify sources of composition variation. Metacarpal and phalangeal composition varied primarily with deer age; liver composition varied with deer sex.

Sera from captive and recently rescued giant pandas (Ailuropoda melanoleuca) in the Wolong Reserve, China, were examined by serum neutralization or hemagglutination inhibition for antibodies to canine distemper virus (CDV), canine coronavirus (CCV), canine herpesvirus (CHV), pseudorabies virus (PRV), canine adenovirus type 2 (CAV), and canine parvovirus (CPV). Serum samples from village domestic dogs and cats, which run free throughout the reserve also were examined.

Antibodies against CPV were detected in six of eight giant pandas and all dogs and cats tested. The origin of the virus was not determined. Two of eight giant pandas and two of seven dogs had CDV antibody titers. Three of eight pandas and three of seven dogs had CCV antibody titers. Four of eight pandas and two of seven dogs had CAV titers; the titers in dogs were very high. No pandas or dogs had evidence of exposure to CHV or PRV.

The first evidence of phocine distemper virus (PDV) infection in Atlantic walruses (Odobenus rosmarus rosmarus) from Nottingham Island, Northwest Territories, Canada, is reported. Blood samples were collected from three male walruses killed by Inuit hunters in the fall of 1990. Differential virus neutralization test for each animal yielded higher titers against PDV than against other members of the Morbillivirus genus including canine distemper, peste des petits ruminants, rinderpest and measles viruses. Thus, PDV infection may be enzootic in walruses of the eastern Canadian Arctic.

We describe the lesions of natural distemper in red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) in Spain. The avidin-biotin-peroxidase complex (ABC) technique and a monoclonal antibody against the nucleocapsid protein of canine distemper virus were successfully used to confirm canine distemper diagnosis.

Three adult black-tailed deer (Odocoileus hemionus columbianus) and four fawns were inoculated with bluetongue virus (BTV) serotype 10 or 17, or epizootic hemorrhagic disease virus (EHDV) serotype 1. Animals were bled at irregular intervals thereafter and the presence of virus-specific antibodies in serum determined by agar gel immunodiffusion (AGID), serum neutralization (SN) and competitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (C-ELISA) tests. Serum antibodies to BTV were detected in all three tests for 692 days after inoculation (DAI) of adult deer, but both the SN and AGID tests gave either erroneous or misleading results. Serum from one deer was negative by the AGID test at 409 DAI with BTV-10 but was positive at 248 and 692 DAI; also one adult and one fawn had antibodies by the SN test to serotypes of BTV with which they were not inoculated. The AGID test for EHDV had false positive results with some sera from animals inoculated only with BTV, and it consistently had false negative results with serum samples collected from an EHDV-inoculated deer at 140 DAI and thereafter. The C-ELISA was the most useful test for the detection of antibodies to BTV because it rapidly gave quantitative and accurate results.

Blood samples were collected from 108 wild hogs (Sus scrofa) from the Great Smoky Mountains National Park (GSMNP), USA, February to July 1990. We found no antibodies for swine brucellosis, pseudorabies, bovine virus diarrhea virus or porcine rotavirus infection. Antibody titers to porcine parvovirus were found in 15 (14%) samples and antibody to one or more leptospiral serovars was found in 48 (44%) samples. Thirty-nine (89%) of the 44 positive samples reacted to all five leptospiral serovars tested.

Infestation with blow fly larvae (Protocalliphora (Trypocalliphora) braueri Hendel) was pathogenic to marsh wren (Cistothorus palustris) young. The mechanism of pathogenicity was Pseudomonas spp. infection of subdermal myiasis-induced lesions and subsequent sepsis. Neither internal organ involvement nor muscle destruction was seen on necropsy of fledglings. Multifocal hepatic necrosis was seen histologically and Pseudomonas sp. was isolated from myiasis sites, liver, and peritoneal cavities.

The prevalence of Cryptosporidia was determined in high density populations of Microtus agrestis, Microtus oeconomus, and Clethrionomys glareolus in Finland. One of 131 M. agrestis and one of 41 C. glareolus each were found to be infected with Cryptosporidium sp.; none were found in 43 Microtus oeconomus. These apparently healthy voles had neither signs of clinical disease nor histopathological changes in intestines.

We collected and examined teeth from 3406 red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) collected in Ontario, Canada, from 1978 to 1986, prior to large scale rabies vaccine baiting. We found tetracycline-like fluorescence in five (0.2%) of the samples. Also, we observed similar fluorescences in five (0.4%) of 1103 striped skunks (Mephitis mephitis) and in six (0.8%) of 744 raccoons (Procyon lotor). The low prevalence of such marks would not appear to invalidate the use of tetracycline as a marking agent in vaccine baiting trials.

We analyzed 161 raccoon (Procyon lotor) blood samples obtained from New Jersey (n = 109), rural Pennsylvania (n = 29) and laboratory confined animals (n = 23) in the USA for lead content; we found significantly higher levels in the New Jersey raccoons (mean = 4.4 μg/dl, SE = 2.9). There was no difference between the lead levels of raccoons from the other two groups (mean = 2.6, SE = 0.5 and mean = 2.5, SE = 0, respectively).

A mixture of tiletamine and zolazepam (Zoletil^®) was used to immobilize 29 captive born Iberian wolves. Based on their excitability during handling procedures the animals were categorized as excited (n = 15) and unexcited (n = 14). We observed differences in the responses of these groups to the drugs. Although immobilized with higher doses (mean ± SD of 6.94 ± 2.13 versus 5.04 ± 1.74 mg/kg for the unexcited) the excited individuals had an irregular and less predictable response, with five individuals needing additional dosages in the excited group compared to one animal in the unexcited group. Arousal time and duration of immobilization of excited wolves was not correlated to initial drug doses, but was in unexcited animals; the excited group had a poorer thermal regulation. Differences in arousal time and duration could be the a result of the different doses used. Excited wolves were older than unexcited (5.4 ± 3.07 versus 2.86 ±2.11 years, respectively). For captive wolves, doses of about 5 mg/kg are recommended for non-excited and 10 mg/Ag for excited individuals.

Twenty-two free-ranging adult female moose (Alces alces) were immobilized with a 1:4 mixture of xylazine hydrochloride (XH) and ketamine hydrochloride (KH). Mean (SD) dosages/animal for XH and KH were 419 (148) and 1565 (433) mg, respectively. Mean (SD) induction time was 18.4 (9.7) minutes. Reversal with yohimbine hydrochloride using a mean dosage of 83 mg/animal resulted in a mean (SD) recovery time of 22.8 (28.5) minutes.

An adult female bowhead whale, Balaena mysticetus, from the Beaufort Sea, Alaska (USA), had necrosis of a well-demarcated portion of the mid-jejunum and adjacent mesentery, accompanied by fibrinous peritonitis. The veins within the mesentery adjacent to the affected intestine were severely dilated and hyperemic. There were no perforations of the gastrointestinal tract, nor any thromboses within the mesenteric veins. Death appeared due to the sequelae of intestinal volvulus and infarction; reduction of the displacement presumably occurred during handling of the animal.