Passerine birds within two California (USA) coastal scrub ecosystems, an island and a mainland site, were examined for hematozoa from 1984 to 1990. Island birds had a significantly lower hematozoan prevalence than mainland birds. This prevalence difference can be related to a lack of appropriate hematozoan vectors on the island. Haemoproteus spp. and Leucocytozoon spp. were the most commonly encountered hematozoa; four new species of Leucocytozoon spp. and one new Haemoproteus sp. were found in five host families. No transmission of hematozoan parasites was detected at the island site during the study. At the mainland coastal scrub site, Leucocytozoon spp. was transmitted each year while Plasmodium spp. and Haemoproteus spp. transmission varied between years. There was evidence that some species of birds acquired infections outside of their breeding season. Results of this study lend further support to the prediction of decreased disease on remote island ecosystems.

Four 4-mo-old elk calves (Cervus elaphus) obtained from northeastern Oregon (USA) each were inoculated orally with 250,000 sporocysts of Sarcocystis spp., including S. sybillensis and S. wapiti. Three similar elk calves of comparable ages and weights served as uninoculated controls maintained with the inoculated elk during the experimental period between September and December 1993. Body weights were evaluated at 0 and 90 days postinoculation (PI); packed cell volumes of whole blood were evaluated at 0, 30, and 60 days PI, and numbers of sarcocysts in histologic sections from 11 selected tissues were evaluated at 90 days PI. Significant differences in blood packed cell volumes were not detected between groups (P > 0.05). Except for weight gain, elk remained healthy. Mean (± SE) weight gain of inoculated elk (27.1 ± 1.6 kg) was significantly (P < 0.05) less than that of controls (40.2 ± 4.9 kg). Mean (±SE) number of sarcocysts in tissues of inoculated (114.4 ± 25.7 cm²) and controls (4.5 ± 1.4 cm²) differed significantly (P < 0.05). Heart, esophagus and skeletal muscle contained the most sarcocysts. No sarcocysts were detected in brain, spinal cord, or testicles. Histologically, mononuclear myositis and myocarditis, with numerous intralesional sarcocysts were seen. Less severe, but widespread inflammation occurred in brain, spinal cord, and optic nerve. Mortality and anemia were not seen, but weight gain depression was detected in the inoculated elk over the 90 day experimental period.

Sera from 111 bighorn sheep (Ovis canadensis) and 95 mule deer (Odocoileus hem-ionus) were tested using an indirect immunofluorescence assay for antibodies to two isolates of Babesia spp. recently obtained from these hosts in California (USA). The study populations were from six locations: three areas of real or potential sympatry of bighorn sheep and deer, one area with deer only, and two areas with bighorn sheep only. Antibody titers from seroreactive individuals were similar with both babesial isolate antigens (P < 0.05), and seroprevalence was highest in the areas of host sympatry. A moderate to high seroprevalence (≥ 30%) in some of the study populations was evidence that babesial parasites may be common in bighorn sheep and mule deer in some areas of California.

We tested 644 serum samples from 480 grizzly bears and 40 black bears from Alaska (USA), collected between 1988 and 1991, for Toxoplasma gondii antibodies, using a commercially available latex agglutination test (LAT). A titer ≥64 was considered positive. Serum antibody prevalence for T. gondii in grizzly bears (Ursus arctos) was 18% (87 of 480). Prevalence ranged from 9% (seven of 77) on Kodiak Island to 28% (15 of 54) in northern Alaska. Prevalence was directly correlated to age. No grizzly bears < 2-year-old had T. gondii antibody. High antibody titers were found mainly in grizzly bears captured north of the Arctic Circle. Antibody prevalence in black bears (Ursus americanus) from Interior Alaska was 15% (six of 40′), similar to the prevalence in grizzly bears from the same area (13%; five of 40).

Ixodid ticks were present in all 189 samples examined from 53 Florida panthers (Felis concolor coryi, 104 collections) and 85 bobcats (Felis rufus floridana) in Florida (USA) between 1974 and 1991. We identified 3,251 ticks from panthers and 918 from bobcats. Specimens of Dermacentor variabilis, Ixodes scapularis, I. affinis, Amblyomma maculatum, and A. americanum were present on 49, 39, 17, seven, and two of the 53 Florida panthers, respectively, and comprised 36%, 55%, 7%, 1%, and <1% of the 3,251 ticks collected from panthers. Ixodes scapularis, D. variabilis, and I. affinis were present on 61, 56, and 11 of the 85 bobcats respectively, and comprised 58%, 39%, and 2% of the 919 ticks collected. Amblyomma americanum and A. maculatum were found infrequently and comprised < 1 % of the total ticks collected from bobcats. Only adult ticks were found on the cats, except for one D. variabilis nymph and three A. americanum nymphs that were found on bobcats.

From November 1992 to February 1993, 455 red deer (Cervus elaphus) were surveyed in order to estimate the prevalence of warble fly (Hypoderma actaeon) larvae under the skin of this ungulate species. Material came from Montes de Toledo, Sierra Morena, Sierra de Alcaraz, and Sierras de Cazorla, Segura y Las Villas Natural Park (central and southern Spain). We observed a prevalence of 92%, with a mean ± SD intensity of 35.7 ± 41.3 grubs per parasitized host; there was a maximum of 317 larvae per host. No significant differences in prevalence by host sex were found, although significant differences were observed in prevalences among different host age classes. The main location of feeding larvae in deer was in the back tissues.

A longitudinal study of morbillivirus infection among harbor (Phoca vitulina) and gray (Halichoerus grypus) seals on the Atlantic coast of North America was carried out between 1980 and 1994. Serology also was carried out on harbor seals from the Pacific northwest coast collected in 1992 and 1993. The prevalence of morbillivirus neutralizing antibodies was significantly (P < 0.0001) higher in gray (73%, n = 296) than in harbor seals (37%, n = 387) from the Atlantic. Titers were significantly (P < 0.0001) higher against phocine distemper (PDV) compared to any other morbillivirus. Antibodies were not detected in serum from Pacific harbor seals. During the winter of 1991 to 1992 an epizootic occurred among harbor seals on the northeast coast of the United States. The event was characterized by an increase in strandings and by a significant (P = 0.001) increase in PDV antibody prevalence to 83% (n = 36) in seals stranded that winter. Morbillivirus lesions and antigen were observed in six animals found stranded from southern Maine to Long Island, New York (USA), between November 1991 and April 1992. In addition, morbillivirus encephalitis was detected in tissues from a harbor seal that stranded in 1988. Enzootic infection appeared to be present in both seal species, although with a different prevalence of disease. We propose that enzootic infection among gray seals is facilitated by population size, high annual recruitment and innate resistance to clinical disease. Infection may be maintained in the smaller harbor seal population through casual contact with gray seals.

To study the susceptibility of wading birds to eastern equine encephalitis (EEE) virus and to determine their potential as reservoir or amplifying hosts, fledgling glossy ibises (Plegadis falcinellus) and snowy egrets (Egretta thula) were captured in New Jersey (USA) and shipped to Colorado (USA) where they were experimentally inoculated with EEE virus. All 16 snowy egrets and 14 (93%) of 15 of the glossy ibises inoculated became viremic with moderate titers, and all survivors developed neutralizing antibody. Six ibises and two egrets died during the first week after inoculation, and EEE virus was isolated from the tissues of three birds. Our experimental results support field evidence about the relative involvement of glossy ibises and snowy egrets in the epizootiology of EEE virus in New Jersey.

From June 1985 to November 1992 eight eastern quolls (Dasyurus viverrinus) and six Tasmanian devils (Sarcophilus harrisii), held at institutions in Australia and Canada, developed progressive blindness and posterior paresis progressing to paralysis. All were aged individuals. At necropsy white matter tracts, particularly in the spinal cord, optic tracts, and cerebellum, contained evidence of severe axon degeneration with vacuolation and macrophage infiltration. The surrounding tissue had evidence of gliosis. The etiology of the condition is unknown but may be a form of age-related degeneration.

We validated fecal metabolite analysis as a noninvasive means of diagnosing pregnancy in uncaptured, free-ranging Rocky Mountain elk (Cervus elaphus nelsoni). During November 1991, we collected blood samples from 21 radiocollared, 1- to 10-year-old female elk in Yellowstone National Park, Wyoming (USA), and determined their pregnancy status by radioimmunoassay of serum pregnancy specific protein B and serum progesterone concentrations. From December 1991 through April 1992, we collected three to 12 fecal samples from each collared elk and measured the concentration of estrone conjugates, pregnanediol-3-glucuronide, and free progesterone by enzyme immunoassays. We also evaluated fecal samples from 10 unmarked male and eight calf elk. Pregnant females had significantly (P < 0.001) higher concentrations of all three fecal metabolites than nonpregnant animals, especially later in gestation (March to April). We developed all possible combinations of univariate, bivariate, and multivariate discriminant function analysis models to determine those variables most useful in predicting memberships of pregnant versus nonpregnant elk during the March to April time-period. We validated each model by applying the classification functions to 11 pregnant and eight nonpregnant elk that were not included in the development of the original models. Accuracy of the discriminant function analysis models ranged from 57 to 84%, with the univariate model based on pregnanediol-3-glucuronide concentration providing the highest classification. Fecal metabolite analysis will enable biologists to noninvasively assess the pregnancy status of elk, especially when diagnoses are based upon multiple samples collected between mid-March and mid-April.

Thirty-eight free-ranging dusky-headed parakeets (Aratinga weddellii) and 13 tui parakeets (Brotogeris sanctithomae) were caught and released in Parque Nacional del Manu in southeastern Peru from 19 July to 5 August 1993. Blood and fecal samples were collected and sera were evaluated for titers to Pacheco's disease herpesvirus, psittacine polyomavirus, paramyxovirus-1, and Chlamydia psittaci. Fecal samples were examined for evidence of ascarid or coccidial infection by fecal flotation, and blood smears were examined for hemoparasites. Five (50%) of 10 A. weddellii serum samples tested by complement fixation (CF) for psittacine polyomavirus antibodies were positive, and three (19%) of 16 A. weddellii samples tested by virus neutralization (VN) for psittacine polyomavirus antibodies were positive, yielding a total of 8 (38%) of the 21 A. weddellii samples positive for psittacine polyomavirus. Based on CF for herpesvirus, four (11%) of 38 A. weddellii samples had antibodies against herpesvirus. All B. sanctithomae were negative for psittacine polyomavirus and psittacine herpesvirus. Thirty-five of the A. weddellii tested were negative for Chlamydia psittaci by CF, latex agglutination, and elementary body agglutination, and all B. sanctithomae were negative for Chlamydia psittaci by the CF test. Nine A. weddellii and eight B. sanctithomae evaluated for paramyxovirus-1 titers by the hemagglutination inhibition test were negative. All fecal samples were negative for ascarids or coccidia by fecal flotation, and all blood smears were negative for hemoparasites by direct microscopic examination. This is the first known description of psittacine polvomavirus and psittacine herpesvirus in free-ranging parrots. Serologic evidence of Pacheco's disease herpesvirus in wild A. weddellii is interesting in light of the fact that Aratinga spp. are considered to be possible carriers of this virus in captivity.

Six species of nongastrointestinal nematodes were recovered from 405 marten, (Martes americana), examined from six areas in Ontario, Canada in 1992 to 1993. Three species (Crenosoma petrowi, Eucoleus aerophilus, Filaraides martis) were found in the respiratory tract, one in the urinary bladder (Pearsonema plica), one in the kidney (Dioctophyme renale), and one in the musculature (Trichinella sp. larvae). This is the first report of F. martis and P. plica from this host. In addition a specimen of Dracunculus insignis collected from a marten pelt was received. Based on our results, martens are primary definitive hosts for few nongastrointestinal nematodes. Animals in more southern areas had greater species richness than those from higher latitudes.

At Doñana National Park, Spain, we compared the prevalence of Staphylococcus spp. infections in the Spanish imperial eagle (Aquila adalberti) in 66 nestlings handled with bare hands and in 46 nestlings handled with gloved hands, 1986 to 1993. We detected staphylococcal infections in 30 (45%) of 66 chicks handled without gloves, and in two (4%) of 46 chicks handled with gloves.

We determined the capacity of bank voles (Clethrionomys glareolus) to infect feeding Ixodes ricinus ticks with Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato (infectivity), during June to October 1991 and June to September 1992 in south-central Sweden. In both years, the infectivity of older voles to ticks was higher in August to September (48% to 59%) than in June to July (20% to 32%). We propose that the infectivity of bank vole populations in Sweden decreases during winter and spring due to death of highly infective voles and recruitment of uninfective young ones, and that the tick vector, rather than the mammalian host, is the primary overwintering reservoir of B. burgdorferi.

Six red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) were given oral doses of homogenized liver from rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus) that died from rabbit viral hemorrhagic disease (RVHD) and four control foxes were given liver from uninfected rabbits. Antibodies to RVHD virus were monitored over 6 months. There was a pronounced antibody response 7 days after exposure which persisted to 14 days and then diminished. Low titers still were evident in three foxes at the end of the experiment. Based on these results, fox serum may be useful as an index of the prevalence of RVHD in sympatric rabbit populations.

Anti-Aspergillus spp. antibody (Ab) levels of seven mating pairs of captive African penguins (Spheniscus demersus) and the maternal Ab levels of their embryonated and unembryonated eggs were determined by ELISA. The egg Ab levels were significantly higher than the Ab levels of their female or male parents. Maternal Ab of unembryonated eggs and Ab of the embryos were significantly correlated with the Ab levels of their female parents. Because eggs can be sampled where adult penguins are not accessible, this technique can be applied for prediction of Aspergillus spp. Ab titers of penguin females in wild populations.

Muscle samples from six wild and two captive European mouflons (Ovis ammon musimon) in Germany as well as one domestic sheep from a German zoo were infected with sarcocysts (Sarcocystis: Sarcocystidae, Apicomplexa). Sarcocystis tenella and S. arieticanis were identified by light and electron microscopy. Both species are determined for the first time from wild sheep, and this is the first description of S. arieticanis from wild sheep.

A bobcat (Felis rufus) estimated to be 6-mo old exhibited head pressing, stupor, intermittent seizures, and vocalization. Based on gross and histopathologic features, it was diagnosed to have severe focally extensive protozoal meningoencephalitis. Toxoplasma gondii was confirmed as the etiologic agent by an avidinbiotin immunohistochemical test. This is the first report of clinical toxoplasmosis in a free-ranging bobcat.

Notoedric mange was diagnosed in a free-ranging adult male ocelot (Felis pardalis) found dead in April 1994 in southern Texas (USA). The emaciated carcass had no body fat. The heart was enlarged and flaccid. There was a nonpurulent serosanguineous pericardial and peritoneal exudate. Severe encrusted skin lesions and alopecia extended from the head posteriorly to the shoulders. The forelegs and feet were less severely affected. We observed a massive infection of Notoedres cati in skin scrapings. Epidermal lesions included hyperkeratosis and parakeratosis with necrotic debris and foci of acute inflammatory cells surrounding mites and their eggs in the stratum corneum. There was mild acanthosis and spongiosis of the stratum germativum, but no chronic inflammation in the dermis. This is the first confirmed case in the ocelot, but notoedric mange has been reported from the bobcat (Felis rufus) in southern Texas. Thus, notoedric mange could pose an additional threat to the already endangered remnant population of the ocelot.

Two of five scalloped hammerhead sharks (Sphyrna lewini) captured May 1987 in Hawaii (USA) developed granulomatous exudative mycotic dermatitis localized in the lateral line canal system. The lesion initially was noted in the cephalic canals, but over a period of months extended into the lateral canal. Fusarium solani and Vibrio spp. were isolated from the canal exudate of both sharks. Bacterial colonies were not observed in the canal walls or surrounding tissues. Fusarium solani infection resulted in a chronic physical and behavioral deterioration of the two sharks; one shark was euthanized in September 1988 and the other in July 1989. This is the first report of Fusarium solani infection in the lateral line canal system and the third account in hammerhead sharks.

Strychnine poisoning of 36 dunlin (Calidris alpina) and two killdeer (Charadrius vociferus) in Yolo County, California (USA) was documented from 11 to 17 December 1990. Birds were found dead on a field containing treated wheat seeds (337 μg strychnine/g seed) in postures consistent with the known physiopathology of strychnine poisoning: rapid rigor mortis, wings folded over backs, straightened toes, and fecal material extruding from vents. Five dunlin and two killdeer were necropsied, and their crop and stomach contents were analyzed by high performance liquid chromatography for the presence of strychnine. The mean (± SD) actual unabsorbed strychnine concentration per amount stomach content for the five dunlin was 110 (± 108) μg/g and for the two killdeer, 210 (± 109) μg/g. Shorebirds have not been identified previously as victims of pesticides.

Samples of shelled corn used for wildlife feed were taken from bait piles and storage bins in North Carolina and South Carolina (USA) from 29 September through 28 November 1993, and were analyzed for aflatoxin. Twenty (51%) of 39 samples were positive, with aflatoxin levels ranging from a trace to 750 parts per billion. Based on the high prevalence of aflatoxin-contaminated corn, exposure of wildlife to aflatoxin undoubtedly occurs, although the effects of such exposure are largely unknown.

The effectiveness of isoflurane as an inhalation anesthetic for muskrats (Ondatra zibethicus) was evaluated. Thirty muskrats were anesthetized in an enclosed chamber using 10 ml of isoflurane in Carlton County, Minnesota (USA), from 27 September to 24 October 1994. Mean (±SE) induction time for adults, juveniles, and kits was 20.6 ± 2.9, 21.5 ± 2.4, and 16.9 ± 5.3 min, respectively (P = 0.77). Respective mean arousal times for adults, juveniles, and kits were 5.1 ± 0.5, 5.7 ± 0.7, and 5.7 ± 0.6 min (P = 0.78). Heart rate, respiration rate, and body temperature were similar among age classes (P = 0.08 to 0.58). Mortality (3.3%) was comparable to that of other inhalation anesthetics. No short-term adverse effects were observed in recaptured individuals. Isoflurane is a safe and effective inhalation anesthetic for muskrats, although prolonged induction may limit its use in field studies.

Two Florida snail kites (Rostrhamus sociabilis plumbeus, Say) collected in August and December 1993 from Osceola County (28°15′N, 81°17′W) and Glades County (26°45′N, 81°10′W), Florida (USA), respectively, were infected with Bothrigaster variolaris (Trematoda: Cyclocoelidae); this parasite has not been reported previously from birds in the United States. One bird, a fledgling female, harbored 270 specimens of B. variolaris; the helminths caused airsacculitis and bronchitis, possible contributing factors in the death of this bird. The other bird, a subadult female, was infected with 40 trematodes and had gross and microscopic lesions consistent with trauma as the cause of death.