We report on the presence of specific antibodies to Brucella spp. and Yersinia enterocolitica in polar bears (Ursus maritimus) from northern Alaska (southern Beaufort Sea) during 2003–2006. Based on numerous known stressors (e.g., climate change and loss of sea ice habitat, contaminants), there is increased concern regarding the status of polar bears. Considering these changes, it is important to assess exposure to potentially pathogenic organisms and to improve understanding of transmission pathways. Brucella or specific antibodies to Brucella spp. has been reported in marine mammals. Various assays were used to elucidate the pathway or source of exposure (e.g., “marine” vs. “terrestrial” Brucella spp.) of northern Alaska polar bears to Brucella spp. The standard plate test (SPT) and the buffered Brucella antigen card test (BBA) were used for initial screening for antibodies specific to Brucella. We then evaluated positive reactors (presence of serum antibody specific for Brucella spp.) using immunoblots and competitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (cELISA; based on pinniped-derived Brucella spp. antigen). Annual prevalence of antibody (BBA and SPT) for Brucella spp. ranged from 6.8% to 18.5% over 2003–2006, with an overall prevalence of 10.2%. Prevalence of Brucella spp. antibody did vary by age class. Western blot analyses indicated 17 samples were positive for Brucella spp. antibody; of these, 13 were negative by marine (pinniped) derived Brucella antigen cELISA and four were positive by marine cELISA. Of the four samples positive for Brucella antibody by marine cELISA, three cross-reacted with Y. enterocolitica and Brucella spp. (one sample was Brucella negative and Y. enterocolitica positive). It appears the polar bear antibody does not react with the antigens used on the marine cELISA assay, potentially indicating a terrestrial (nonpinniped) source of Brucella spp.

Gopher tortoise (Gopherus polyphemus) populations on four tracts of public lands in northern and central Florida were studied from 1998 to 2001 to assess the effects of mycoplasmal upper respiratory tract disease (URTD). Adult gopher tortoises (n=205) were marked for identification, serum and nasal flush samples were obtained for mycoplasmal diagnostic assays, and clinical signs of URTD (nasal discharge, ocular discharge, palpebral edema, and conjunctivitis) were evaluated. A subset of tortoises (n=68) was radio-instrumented to facilitate repeated sampling and document potential mortality. Presence of serum antibody to Mycoplasma agassizii was determined by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), and mollicutes species were detected in nasal flushes by polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Antibody prevalence varied among sites and years but was highest in 1998, exceeding 70% at two sites. Only 11 tortoises (5%) were positive by PCR, and three species (M. agassizii, M. testudineum, and a nonpathogenic Acholeplasma) were identified in nasal flush specimens. Nasal discharge, though rare (6% of tortoises), was significantly correlated with higher ELISA ratios, study site, and positive PCR status. Mortality events (n=11) occurred on two of the three M. agassizii-positive sites; no mortality was observed on the M. agassizii-negative control site. However, none of the tested variables (ELISA result, study site, year, sex, presence of clinical signs, or carapace length) showed significant ability to predict the odds of death. Mycoplasmal URTD is believed to be a chronic disease with high morbidity but low mortality, and follow-up studies are needed to detect long-term effects.

Previous studies demonstrated that bighorn sheep (Ovis canadensis) died of pneumonia when commingled with domestic sheep (Ovis aries) but did not conclusively prove that the responsible pathogens were transmitted from domestic to bighorn sheep. The objective of this study was to determine, unambiguously, whether Mannheimia haemolytica can be transmitted from domestic to bighorn sheep when they commingle. Four isolates of M. haemolytica were obtained from the pharynx of two of four domestic sheep and tagged with a plasmid carrying the genes for green fluorescent protein (GFP) and ampicillin resistance (AP^R). Four domestic sheep, colonized with the tagged bacteria, were kept about 10 m apart from four bighorn sheep for 1 mo with no clinical signs of pneumonia observed in the bighorn sheep during that period. The domestic and bighorn sheep were then allowed to have fence-line contact for 2 mo. During that period, three bighorn sheep acquired the tagged bacteria from the domestic sheep. At the end of the 2 mo of fence-line contact, the animals were allowed to commingle. All four bighorn sheep died 2 days to 9 days following commingling. The lungs from all four bighorn sheep showed gross and histopathologic lesions characteristic of M. haemolytica pneumonia. Tagged M. haemolytica were isolated from all four bighorn sheep, as confirmed by growth in ampicillin-containing culture medium, PCR-amplification of genes encoding GFP and Ap^R, and immunofluorescent staining of GFP. These results unequivocally demonstrate transmission of M. haemolytica from domestic to bighorn sheep, resulting in pneumonia and death of bighorn sheep.

Wild animal populations face threats from pathogens from both intentionally released captive animals and domestic animals that accompany human settlements. From December 2004 through August 2005, we studied free living macaws and parrots in the Tambopata National Reserve in the Peruvian Amazon and semicaptive domestic fowl in human settlements adjacent to the reserve. In 1992–1993, large macaws (Aras spp.) that were serologically positive for Salmonella Pullorum were released into this reserve, which hosts dense populations of free-living parrots and macaws. We collected cloacal swabs from 64 birds and cultured for Salmonella spp. via standard laboratory methods. All 35 psittacines tested were culture negative for Salmonella spp., while 31% of 29 domestic fowl were culture positive. Our findings suggest that the domestic fowl that accompany human settlement in this region carry and shed Salmonella spp. that could threaten wild bird populations in and around the reserve.

Electrocardiographic (ECG) variables were measured in 22 healthy, free-ranging brown bears (Ursus arctos) anesthetized with a combination of medetomidine, tiletamine, and zolazepam during research and management operations in south-central Sweden. Six-limb lead ECGs and the base-apex lead were recorded. Morphologies, amplitudes, rhythms, and durations of P waves, PQ intervals, QRS complexes, T waves, QT intervals, and QT intervals corrected for heart rate (QTc) were calculated from the base-apex lead. The mean electrical axis (MEA) for each individual was approximated in the frontal plane from the heights of R waves in leads I (X axis) and aVF (Y axis). All 22 bears had sinus rhythms and 10 of them had respiratory sinus arrhythmia. Heart rates ranged from 43 to 103 beats per minute and were independent of body mass. The MEA was 78.6 (±5.5) degrees. Some bears had strikingly peaked T waves, and many had pronounced notching (high frequency components) to the QRS complex. This information contributes to the limited data base of electrocardiography for brown bears and elucidates ECG similarities with other species in the order Carnivora.

Biochemical and hematologic reference intervals have been reported for loggerhead sea turtles (Caretta caretta, Linnaeus 1758), but low sample numbers and simple statistical analyses have constrained their diagnostic usefulness. During June 2007–May 2008, 101 loggerhead sea turtles in Moreton Bay, Queensland, Australia, were captured by hand from boats; clinically assessed to determine health status; blood was sampled; and biochemical and hematologic variables were measured. Of these turtles, 66 were classified as clinically healthy and 23 as unhealthy. Reference intervals were calculated using data from clinically healthy turtles. Of the clinically unhealthy turtles, 82 and 45% had at least one biochemical and hematologic result, respectively, outside of at least one of the calculated intervals. However, only low proportions of unhealthy loggerhead sea turtles had abnormal results for each variable. The highest percentage of unhealthy turtles that were outside at least one estimated reference interval was 35%, for thrombocyte counts. Neither sex nor maturity category (mature versus large immature) influenced the risk of being clinically unhealthy. These are the first plasma biochemical and hematologic reference intervals reported for loggerhead sea turtles from the southwestern Pacific Ocean. We conclude that, for loggerhead sea turtles in Moreton Bay, separate reference intervals are required for mature and immature turtles for thrombocyte counts and for male and female turtles for lymphocyte, heterophil, and total white cell counts; otherwise, a single reference interval can be used regardless of age or sex. When estimating reference intervals in loggerhead sea turtles, it is desirable to use both methods for calculating reference intervals used in this study because intervals can differ substantially between methods for some variables. Joint interpretation using reference intervals from both methods allows the categorization of results as “normal,” “suspect,” or “abnormal.”

Captive-reared Whooping Cranes (Grus americana) released into Florida for the resident reintroduction project experienced unusually high mortality and morbidity during the 1997–98 and 2001–02 release seasons. Exposure to infectious bursal disease virus (IBDV) serotype 2 as evidenced by seroconversion was suspected to be the factor that precipitated these mortality events. Very little is known about the incidence of IBD in wild bird populations. Before this study, natural exposure had not been documented in wild birds of North America having no contact with captive-reared cranes, and the prevalence and transmission mechanisms of the virus in wild birds were unknown. Sentinel chickens (Gallus gallus) monitored on two Whooping Crane release sites in central Florida, USA, during the 2003–04 and 2004–05 release seasons seroconverted, demonstrating natural exposure to IBDV serotype 2. Blood samples collected from Wild Turkeys (Meleagris gallopavo) and Sandhill Cranes (Grus canadensis) in eight of 21 counties in Florida, USA, and one of two counties in southern Georgia, USA, were antibody-positive for IBDV serotype 2, indicating that exposure from wild birds sharing habitat with Whooping Cranes is possible. The presence of this virus in wild birds in these areas is a concern for the resident flock of Whooping Cranes because they nest and raise their chicks in Florida, USA. However, passively transferred antibodies may protect them at this otherwise vulnerable period in their lives.

Bovine tuberculosis (BTB) is endemic in Ethiopian cattle. However, the status of the disease in wildlife populations that often share habitat with livestock is unknown. We screened for BTB in wildlife in five regions in Ethiopia. Blood and tissue samples from 133 mammals of 28 species were collected from 2006 to 2008. We used a rapid serology test (RT) based on lateral flow technology, and performed culture of lymph node specimens inoculated onto Lowenstein-Jensen and Middlebrook 7H11 media. Acid-fast colonies were further analyzed by molecular typing. Sera from 20 of 87 animals (23%) were positive for BTB by RT; acid-fast bacilli were cultured from 29 of 89 animals (32.5%). None of the positive cultures yielded mycobacteria from the Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex but many environmental mycobacteria were isolated. Among these, Mycobacterium terrae was the most common. We demonstrated a high prevalence of environmental mycobacteria in wildlife, the role of which is unknown. Flagship rare endemic species such as the mountain nyala (Tragelaphus buxtoni) and the Ethiopian wolf (Canis simensis) may be at risk for BTB. We also assessed the utility of RT for field purposes.

One of the most severe threats to bighorn sheep (Ovis canadensis) populations is disease. With the objective of projecting possible epizootic consequences to bighorn sheep population dynamics, we examined 23 epizootic mortality episodes from presumably known causes that occurred in the United States and Canada from 1942 to 2005. These outbreaks were correlated with population size using regression models. Epizootic origins were documented by considering contact with a “new” pathogen for the bighorn sheep population or pneumonic processes, presumably triggered by stress. We suggest mortality rates are negatively related to population size in a logarithmic function, and offer a model to estimate the percentage of disease-related mortalities for a given population size of bighorn sheep. From a disease dynamics perspective, we suggest a minimum population of 188 bighorn sheep would be required to insure long-term persistence in the presence of epizootic disease.

The American Oystercatcher (Haematopus palliatus palliatus) is the only species of oystercatcher native to the Atlantic coast of North America and is restricted in distribution to intertidal shellfish beds in coastal areas. Currently, the American Oystercatcher population in South Carolina and Georgia is threatened by widespread habitat loss, resulting in low reproductive success and small population size. Oystercatchers could be an important indicator of ecosystem health because they depend on quality coastal breeding habitat and prey on bivalves, which can accumulate toxins and pathogens from the local environment. Data were collected from American Oystercatchers (n=171) captured at five sites in South Carolina and Georgia between 2001 and 2006. Iridial depigmentation was frequently noted during physical examination and was more prevalent in female birds. Female birds were larger than males on average, but ranges for weight and morphometric measurements had considerable overlap. Mean values were calculated for hematology, plasma biochemistry, and hormone levels, and prevalence of exposure to select pathogens was determined. Mercury was the only trace metal detected in blood samples. These data provide baseline health information needed for longitudinal monitoring and conservation efforts for American Oystercatchers. In addition, this study illustrates the potential use of this species as an indicator for the health of the southeastern US coastal nearshore ecosystem.

Whole-blood samples were obtained from 214 white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) representing 44 sites in Connecticut (USA) during 1992, 1993, 1996, 1999, and 2000 through 2006. Sera were analyzed for total antibodies to whole-cell or recombinant antigens of Borrelia burgdorferi sensu stricto and Anaplasma phagocytophilum, the respective causative agents of Lyme borreliosis and human granulocytic anaplasmosis. Deer sera contained antibodies to both bacteria during different seasons and throughout the 11-yr study. Of the 224 sera tested, 141 (63%) contained antibodies to whole-cell B. burgdorferi in a polyvalent enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, whereas 124 (55%) were positive to whole-cell A. phagocytophilum by indirect fluorescent antibody staining. Use of highly specific recombinant antigens (VlsE of B. burgdorferi and protein 44 of A. phagocytophilum) provided strong confirmatory results of past or current infections. There was coexistence of antibodies to whole-cell or recombinant antigens of both agents in 72 (32%) sera. Analyses of 18 sera from eight deer that were marked, released, and recaptured, showed minimal changes in antibody titer over sampling time intervals ranging from 17 days to 5.1 yr. Relatively high antibody prevalences for both bacterial agents in different seasons and years reaffirm that there are well-established foci for both tick-borne infections and probably reflect frequent exposure of deer to infected Ixodes scapularis ticks. November and December is a suitable period to obtain blood samples from deer to conduct serosurveillance for both bacteria.

Health monitoring of wildlife populations can greatly benefit from rapid, local, noninvasive molecular assays for pathogen detection. Fecal samples collected from free-living Virunga mountain gorillas (Gorilla beringei beringei) between August 2002 and February 2003 were tested for Campylobacter spp. DNA using a portable, real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR) instrument. A high prevalence of Campylobacter spp. was detected in both individually identified (22/26=85%) and nest-collected samples (68/114=59.6%), with no statistically significant differences among different gorilla sexes or age classes or between tourist-visited versus research gorilla groups. The PCR instrument was able to discriminate two distinct groups of Campylobacter spp. in positive gorilla samples based on the PCR product fluorescent-probe melting profiles. The rare type (6/90 positives, 7%, including three mixed cases) matched DNA sequences of Campylobacter jejuni and was significantly associated with abnormally soft stools. The more common type of positive gorilla samples (87/90 positives, 97%) were normally formed and contained a Campylobacter sp. with DNA matching no published sequences. We speculate that the high prevalence of Campylobacter spp. detected in gorilla fecal samples in this survey mostly reflects previously uncharacterized and nonpathogenic intestinal flora. The real-time PCR assay was more sensitive than bacterial culture with Campylobacter-specific media and commercially available, enzyme immunoassay tests for detecting Campylobacter spp. in human samples.

Anaplasma phagocytophilum transmitted by Ixodes spp. ticks is the causative agent of tick-borne fever (TBF) in domestic ruminants. TBF is widespread along the coast of southern Norway and may cause a severe problem for the sheep industry. Red deer (Cervus elaphus) are important hosts for ticks and have been found to be infected naturally with A. phagocytophilum. However, it is unclear whether red deer could serve as reservoir hosts for A. phagocytophilum infections in sheep. We infected lambs experimentally with a red deer and a sheep isolate, respectively. The 497 base pairs of the partial 16S rRNA gene sequences of both isolates were 100% identical to GenBank accession number M73220; the 3.8 kilobases of the total ank gene sequences were 99% identical. Sixteen lambs were used, four lambs in each group. Two groups were inoculated with the red deer isolate on day 0, and then challenged on day 42 with the ovine or the red deer isolate, respectively. The third group was inoculated with the sheep isolate on day 0 and challenged with the red deer strain on day 42. Four lambs were used as uninfected controls. Blood samples for hematology, bacteriology, and serology were collected regularly for 12 wk. Presence of A. phagocytophilum in blood was determined using blood smears. Serologic response was measured by indirect immunofluorescence. Although animals inoculated with the ovine strain showed more severe clinical manifestations, lambs infected with the red deer isolate reacted with typical signs of TBF such as fever, bacteremia, and neutropenia. We conclude that A. phagocytophilum strains causing TBF in sheep might circulate in the red deer population in Norway.

The dusky-footed woodrat (Neotoma fuscipes) is the putative reservoir for Anaplasma phagocytophilum in the western United States based on high prevalence of A. phagocytophilum genetic material detected by polymerase chain reaction (PCR), high antibody prevalence, and infestation with the vector tick Ixodes pacificus. Following inoculation of nine wild-caught woodrats with woodrat-, canine-, or equine-origin A. phagocytophilum, all became PCR-positive and seroconverted. However, when PCR-positive woodrat blood was delivered as inoculum to three horses, the horses never became clinically ill, PCR-positive, or antibody-positive. Each horse was subsequently infected with either the equine- or chipmunk-origin A. phagocytophilum, resulting in clinical anaplasmosis. Our data show that woodrats are permissive to several strains of A. phagocytophilum, but strains originating from woodrats did not cause clinical disease in horses.

Since raccoon rabies first appeared in Ontario in 1999, >90,000 raccoons (Procyon lotor) have received IMRAB®3 inactivated rabies vaccine via intramuscular (IM) injection and were released at the point of capture as part of a multiyear rabies control program, trap-vaccinate-release (TVR). Of the 132 confirmed cases infected with raccoon-variant rabies virus in Ontario between 1999 and 2005, two were from that vaccinated group, as indicated by the presence of identifying ear tags. During ongoing rabies control programs in 2003, sera were collected from 172 wild raccoons that had received IMRAB®3 and tested for rabies-virus antibodies. Raccoons had one of three histories: 1) vaccinated in the current year only (to examine the response to primary vaccination), 2) vaccinated in the previous year only (to determine the duration of the primary antibody response), and 3) vaccinated in the previous year and current year (to examine antibody response to booster vaccination). Seroconversion in primary vaccinates could be detected as early as 1 wk postvaccination when sera were measured with the use of a competitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (C-ELISA) with a cutoff value established to correspond to a neutralizing titer of 0.5 IU/ml. During weeks three and four postvaccination, 94% of sampled raccoons had detectable antibodies to rabies virus and 31% were still antibody positive the following year. Differences in the kinetics of the immune response were found in raccoons sampled from the two different TVR areas of the province. A strong anamnestic response was detected after booster vaccinations. IMRAB®3 by IM injection was found to be an efficacious vaccine for rabies control in raccoons.

Since 2000, cutaneous nodular lesions were observed in Tohoku hynobiid salamanders (Hynobius lichenatus) in the northern Abukuma Mountains, northeastern Honshu, Japan. The distribution of diseased salamanders has expanded, along with the increasing severity of the disease. Samples (foreleg, hindleg, and tail) from five diseased salamanders caught in the spring of 2009 contained 11 to 383 metacercarial cysts (0.43–0.48 mm in diameter) per individual. Experimental inoculations of the metacercariae into rats (Rattus norvegicus) resulted in the development of pentagonal adults with intrauterine eggs that were collected at 3 days, 2 wk, and 5 wk postinoculation. Although adults obtained from rats were smaller, the flukes were morphologically similar to Euryhelmis costaricensis, recorded from Japanese martens (Martes melampus) in northeastern Honshu. The ribosomal RNA gene sequences of the metacercariae collected from salamanders and the E. costaricensis collected from a Japanese marten were identical, confirming the morphology-based species identification. Environmental changes responsible for the increased frequency of diseased salamanders and the increased parasite load are unknown, although increases in feral populations of introduced raccoons (Procyon lotor) and American minks (Neovison vison) may be associated.

Raccoons (n=590) were collected from October 1999 to August 2003 from 35 counties across Texas, USA, and gastrointestinal tracts were examined for Baylisascaris procyonis. We documented B. procyonis in central and eastern Texas. Baylisascaris procyonis occurred in 5.4% raccoons in Texas with an overall mean abundance and mean intensity of 0.4±0.1 and 7.4±2.3, respectively. Prevalence was higher in central Texas ecoregions and on clayey soil texture than other regions or soil textures of Texas. Mean parasite abundance was highest in the Postoak Savanna ecoregion located in central Texas. Our findings expanded the range of B. procyonis in Texas and confirmed that areas of Texas with clayey soil texture are more vulnerable to B. procyonis transmission. This study gives a better understanding of where B. procyonis may occur in Texas and which environmental characteristics are better suited for B. procyonis occurrence and transmission, especially in areas where likelihood of frequent human contact with raccoons and their feces increases.

Forty captive Mallards (Anas platyrhynchos), of both sexes, were separated into five groups and dosed with lead shot via oral intubation; one group was used as a control. Lead dosage differed in terms of shot number and size, as well as administration time. One hundred and thirty-five wild mallards were trapped between 1998 and 2001 in the Boada and Nava lagoons near the Canal de Castilla, in the Spanish province of Palencia. Radiologic techniques (ventrodorsal and lateral views) were used to detect lead shot in the gizzard and to determine degradation in dosed birds over time. Heparinized blood samples were taken from wild and captive mallards and blood lead levels were determined using anodic stripping voltammetry with a dropping mercury electrode. Clinical signs, injuries, and body weight were recorded. In approximately 90% of the experimentally dosed mallards, administered shot stayed in their gizzard until it degraded; this took approximately 30 days. Peak lead levels in blood were observed between days 10 and 20, and 10 days following a repeat dosage; males were more sensitive than females to a repeat dosage. During the experimental phase, 34% of birds died, and those that survived had varying degrees of anorexia, lethargy, and a decreased response to external stimulus. Of 135 tested wild mallards, 41% had a blood lead concentration higher than 0.200 μg/g. Lead shot was found embedded in 3.6% of the wild birds and 1.2% had a lead shot pellet in their gizzard.

Avian botulism outbreaks are frequently perpetuated by type C toxin produced by Clostridium botulinum proliferating in decomposing bird carcasses and consumption of toxic maggots from these carcasses by healthy birds. Therefore, removing bird carcasses has been advocated for disease management because availability of toxic maggots should be reduced, increasing duck survival. However, this management is expensive, and its effect on waterfowl mortality under field conditions is unknown. We radio-marked 419 molting mallards on 11 lakes in western Canada during July–August 1999–2001 and monitored them for 30 days, testing whether survival was higher on lakes with carcass removal. Botulism occurred on 10 lakes. On five carcass removal lakes, greater-than-normal effort was made to conduct early, thorough surveillance and immediately remove carcasses; on six nonremoval lakes, no carcasses were removed. In 1999, estimated 30-day survival probabilities ranged from 0.149 (95% CI=0.065–0.304) on one large lake with carcass removal to 0.466 (95% CI=0.270–0.674) and 0.618 (95% CI=0.443–0.767) on two nonremoval lakes. As a result, we conducted work on smaller wetlands thereafter, reasoning that any management benefit would be easier to detect. In 2000, estimated 30-day survival probabilities were 0.313 (95% CI=0.143–0.556) and 0.794 (95% CI=0.609–0.905) on two carcass removal lakes versus 0.525 (95% CI=0.362–0.682) and 0.743 (95% CI=0.564–0.866) on two nonremoval lakes. In 2001, botulism was detected on two nonremoval lakes where survival probabilities were 0.845 (95% CI=0.630–0.946) and 0.942 (95% CI=0.778–0.987), and on one removal lake where survival probability was 1.0 (95% CI=0.99–1.0), but not detected on the other removal lake where no marked birds died from botulism (1.0, 95% CI=0.99–1.0). Survival tended to be higher on lakes with lower carcass density, but when data were organized by carcass removal versus nonremoval, mallard survival was not consistently greater on lakes where carcasses were removed.

We analyzed the results from nationwide surveillance of avian influenza (AI) from birds in South Korea's major wild bird habitats and the demilitarized zone of South Korea, 2003–2008. Of 28,214 fecal samples analyzed, 225 yielded influenza viruses, for a prevalence of 0.8%. Hemagglutinin (HA) subtypes H1–H12 and all nine neuraminidase (NA) subtypes were detected. The dominant HA subtypes were H6, H1, and H4, and the most common NA subtypes were N2, N1, and N6. Among the 38 HA/NA subtype combinations, the most common were H4N6, H6N1, and H5N2. Thirty-seven low-pathogenic AI (LPAI) viruses of the H5 and H7 subtype were detected. Among them, we identified bird species for 16 H5- and H7-positive fecal samples using a DNA bar-coding system instituted in 2007; all birds were identified as Anseriformes. The HA gene of the H5 wild bird isolates belonged to the Eurasian avian lineage, and could be clearly distinguished from the sublineage H5N1 highly pathogenic AI (HPAI) of the Eurasian and American avian lineages. Whereas H7 LPAI viruses did not group as a separate sublineage with H7 HPAI viruses, H7 isolates were closely related with the Eurasian avian lineage.

We investigated the prevalence of West Nile virus (WNV)-neutralizing antibodies and infectious virus, and the occurrence of overwinter transmission in two raptor species during January and March 2006 at the Salton Sea, Imperial County, California. We captured 208 American Kestrels (Falco sparverius) (January, n=100; March, n=108) and 116 Burrowing Owls (Athene cunicularia) (January, n=52; March, n=64). Laboratory analysis revealed that 83% of American Kestrels and 31% of Burrowing Owls were positive for WNV-neutralizing antibodies. Additionally, two seroconversions were detected in Burrowing Owls between January and March. Infectious WNV, consistent with acute infection, was not detected in any bird.

Serologic testing to detect antibodies to avian influenza (AI) virus has been an underused tool for the study of these viruses in wild bird populations, which traditionally has relied on virus isolation and reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). In a preliminary study, a recently developed commercial blocking enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (bELISA) had sensitivity and specificity estimates of 82% and 100%, respectively, for detection of antibodies to AI virus in multiple wild bird species after experimental infection. To further evaluate the efficacy of this commercial bELISA and the agar gel immunodiffusion (AGID) test for AI virus antibody detection in wild birds, we tested 2,249 serum samples collected from 62 wild bird species, representing 10 taxonomic orders. Overall, the bELISA detected 25.4% positive samples, whereas the AGID test detected 14.8%. At the species level, the bELISA detected as many or more positive serum samples than the AGID in all 62 avian species. The majority of positive samples, detected by both assays, were from species that use aquatic habitats, with the highest prevalence from species in the orders Anseriformes and Charadriiformes. Conversely, antibodies to AI virus were rarely detected in the terrestrial species. The serologic data yielded by both assays are consistent with the known epidemiology of AI virus in wild birds and published reports of host range based on virus isolation and RT-PCR. The results of this research are also consistent with the aforementioned study, which evaluated the performance of the bELISA and AGID test on experimental samples. Collectively, the data from these two studies indicate that the bELISA is a more sensitive serologic assay than the AGID test for detecting prior exposure to AI virus in wild birds. Based on these results, the bELISA is a reliable species-independent assay with potentially valuable applications for wild bird AI surveillance.

Five outbreaks of botulism in waterbirds were encountered over a 5-yr period from 2004 to 2008 in Korea. In October 2008, an outbreak of avian type C botulism affected approximately 2,000 wild waterbirds in the Namdong flood control basin, Incheon, South Korea. Ecologic conditions, clinical signs exhibited by moribund birds, and lack of gross pathology and microbial evidence of infectious disease, suggested botulinum intoxication. Type C botulinum toxin was demonstrated in duck sera, liquid culture of intestinal tissue, and an extract of maggots taken from the carcasses. Additionally, 34 of 40 (85.0%) sediment samples from the same area were positive for botulinum toxin by mouse bioassay using multivalent (types A–F) antiserum, indicating that toxigenic Clostridium botulinum was present in the environment. This is the most severe case of avian botulism documented in Korea.

This case study confirms the interaction between necrophilic flies and white-tailed deer, Odocoileus virginianus, during an anthrax outbreak in West Texas (summer 2005). Bacillus anthracis was identified by culture and PCR from one of eight pooled fly collections from deer carcasses on a deer ranch with a well-documented history of anthrax. These results provide the first known isolation of B. anthracis from flesh-eating flies associated with a wildlife anthrax outbreak in North America and are discussed in the context of wildlife ecology and anthrax epizootics.

We investigated the effect of haloperidol and azaperone in drive-net captured Southern chamois (Rupicapra pyrenaica). Both tranquilizers have been successfully used in a wide range of wild species for reducing postcapture stress response. During 2005, 39 free-ranging chamois were captured, randomly injected intramuscularly with haloperidol (0.29±0.12 mg/kg; n=24), azaperone (1.1±0.82 mg/kg; n=6), or saline (0.5 ml; n=9), and restrained for 3 hr. Heart rate was higher in the treated chamois; erythrocyte parameters and total protein concentration decreased over time owing to splenic sequestration, hemodilution, vasodilation, and reflex tachycardia. Creatinine, sodium, and chloride remained stable only in the haloperidol-treated group, suggesting an improvement in renal perfusion. Nevertheless, the azaperone-treated chamois displayed higher body temperature, and both treated groups had higher serum muscular enzymes than the control group, suggesting higher muscle stress. These results lead us not to recommend the use of these tranquilizers—especially azaperone—as first-choice neuroleptics in chamois.

Raccoon (Procyon lotor) latrine surveys are an efficient and cost-effective method to quantify Baylisascaris procyonis exposure risk for intermediate hosts. Nevertheless, current methodologies may introduce bias by homogenizing scats collected within latrines and estimating exposure risk at the latrine scale. The objective of this study was to examine the potential for raccoon latrine size to bias estimates of risk of exposure when utilizing current methodologies that pool scats prior to analysis. We accomplished this by evaluating correlation of the presence of B. procyonis eggs among scats collected within latrines. Specimens were collected in southern Indiana during November and December of 2006. Raccoon scats collected within latrines exhibited no correlation with the presence of B. procyonis eggs. Accordingly, to eliminate the bias introduced by pooling scats within latrines, scats rather than latrines should be treated as the sampling unit for estimating risk of exposure for intermediate hosts. Further, evaluation of exposure risk based on individual scats has the potential to greatly reduce the time and expense associated with obtaining precise estimates of B. procyonis exposure risk.

We used enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and western blotting (WB) to evaluate the reactivity of first-stage larval extracts of Hypoderma lineatum with antibodies in sera from 76 red deer from an endemic area for Hypoderma actaeon. Antibodies in sera from deer infested with H. actaeon recognized hypodermin C from H. lineatum in both ELISA and WB assays. ELISA values were correlated with the epidemiology of the fly infestation in the area where the deer sera were collected. There was no clear relationship between anti-hypodermin C antibody levels and the age of the animals or the number of Hypoderma grubs found at necropsy in the hides of the deer. Our results suggest that first-instar antigens of H. lineatum can be used to diagnose natural infestations by H. actaeon by indicating the presence of first-stage larvae, which can help to accurately describe H. actaeon epidemiology.

Habitat fragmentation and diseases have resulted in a decline of the marsh deer (Blastocerus dichotomus) throughout its South American range. Our objectives were to determine whether marsh deer intended for translocation from a region of the Rio Paraná Basin had been infected previously by foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV) and whether they were carrying virus. We captured marsh deer from June to October 1998 and collected blood from 108 animals and esophageal-pharyngeal fluid from 53. Serum was tested for antibodies against three FMDV serotypes (O, A, and C) by liquid-phase-blocking sandwich enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Esophageal-pharyngeal fluid was tested for FMDV RNA by reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) and inoculation into three successive baby hamster kidney (BHK-21) cell subcultures, followed by RT-PCR of cultures. We detected low log₁₀ titers (range 1.0–1.5) to FMDV subtype A₂₄ Cruzeiro in 19 of 108 sampled marsh deer, but failed to isolate FMDV or detect FMDV RNA in any samples. We conclude that marsh deer from our study site were unlikely to carry FMDV; however, as a preventive measure, the 19 animals with titers for FMDV were not sent to FMDV-free Brazilian states.

To evaluate the presence of Escherichia coli O157, cloacal swabs were collected from 60 adult frogs kept as pets and analyzed by culture methods and multiplex polymerase chain reaction for stx1, stx2, and E. coli attaching and effacing (eae) and hly genes. The pathogen was isolated from two samples and both carried stx2 gene. This is believed to be the first report of natural E. coli O157 infection in living frogs.

Trapper-killed North American river otters (Lontra canadensis) in North Carolina, USA, were screened for multiple vector-borne bacteria known to be pathogenic to mammals. Blood was collected from 30 carcasses in 2006, from 35 in 2007, and from one live otter in 2008. Samples were screened using conventional polymerase chain reaction (PCR) tests for DNA from Bartonella spp., Ehrlichia spp., and spotted fever group Rickettsia spp. All samples were negative for Rickettsia spp. Twelve of 30 samples from 2006 produced amplicons using the assay designed to detect Ehrlichia spp., but sequencing revealed that the amplified DNA fragment was from a novel Wolbachia sp., thought to be an endosymbiote of a Dirofilaria sp. Between 2006 and 2007, DNA from a novel Bartonella sp. was detected in 19 of 65 animals (29%). Blood from one live otter captured in 2008 was found positive for this Bartonella sp. by both PCR and culture. The pathogenicity of this Bartonella species in river otters or other mammals is unknown.

Over a 6-day period beginning on 15 October 2008, 93 dead or sick wild waterfowl, including Mallards, Spotbills, and teal species, were found along the shore of a branch stream of the Hangang River, which flows through Seoul, Korea, and were submitted to the National Veterinary Research and Quarantine Service (NVRQS) for diagnosis. Clinically, the affected birds showed flaccid paralysis of the legs and wings and paralysis of the neck. Grossly, no bird showed any lesions, but all had almost empty stomachs. Histopathologic findings included mild lymphocytic hepatitis and mild lymphocytic interstitial nephritis. Clostridium botulinum type C toxin was identified in sera collected from the birds using a mouse bioassay for botulinum toxins; however, no bacteria were isolated from any of the affected birds. In addition, a low-pathogenic avian influenza virus was isolated from two Spotbills, and pesticides such as diazinon and phorate, were detected in seven Mallards. The cause of this outbreak is not clear, but an increase in organic materials from sewage due to drought, increased temperatures, and an increased number of aquatic carcasses resulting from pesticide contamination may have increased the replication of C. botulinum, contributing to the release of botulinum toxins into the waterfowl food chain.

From 2005 through 2008, we screened 650 Oregon spotted frogs (Rana pretiosa) from three populations in central Oregon, USA, for hemoparasites. A Hepatozoon sp., not previously reported in R. pretiosa, was found in one population of frogs, mostly as intracellular gamonts at a prevalence of 10.5% with parasitemias ranging from 0.02% to greater than 42% of erythrocytes within individual frogs. Intra- and extracellular merozoites were present, but rare. A potential vector, the mosquito Culex boharti, was common throughout the habitat of the population carrying Hepatozoon sp.

A 3-day-old, male red deer (Cervus elaphus) with bilateral microphthalmia was found dead in the Western Alps in northern Italy. No other gross alterations were present. Ocular globes were formalin fixed and processed for histology. In both eyes, a large cyst, filled with keratin and lined by squamous epithelium admixed with sebaceous glands and hair follicles, expanded the anterior chamber. A mass composed of spindle cells and small tubules, embedded in myxoid ground substance, filled the vitreal chamber. No lens tissue was found, leading to the speculation that the dermoid cystic structures originated from abnormal differentiation of the primitive ectodermal lens vesicle. Immunohistochemistry with a panel of antibodies against cytoskeletal proteins revealed neural and mesenchymal elements within the vitreal mass. A complex bilateral ocular dysgenesis, with microphthal-mia, aphakia, and dermoid metaplasia of primitive lens vesicle was diagnosed. The latter finding was unusual and was previously documented only in Texel sheep (Ovis ammon), in which it was related to specific gene mutation on chromosome 23.

Wildlife managers often need to assess the current health status of wildlife communities before implementation of management actions involving surveillance, reintroductions, or translocations. We estimated the sensitivity and specificity of a commercially available domestic canine rapid diagnostic antigen test for canine parvovirus and a rapid enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for the detection of antibodies toward Anaplasma phagocytophilum on populations of fishers (Martes pennanti) and sympatric gray foxes (Urocyon cinereoargenteus). Eighty-two fecal samples from 66 fishers and 16 gray foxes were tested with both SNAP® PARVO rapid diagnostic test (RDT) and a nested polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Whole blood samples from 23 fishers and 53 gray foxes were tested with both SNAP 4Dx® RDT and immunofluorescence assays (IFAs). The SNAP PARVO RDT detected no parvovirus, whereas PCR detected the virus in 17 samples. Eleven samples were positive using the SNAP 4Dx RDT, whereas 46 samples tested by IFA were positive for A. phagocytophilum. Both RDTs had low sensitivity and poor test agreement. These findings clearly demonstrate the importance of validating RDTs developed for domesticated animals before using them for wildlife populations.

Invasive, hypermucoid Klebsiella pneumoniae causes severe abscess formation in humans and in certain species of nonhuman primates. We conducted a survey of captive and wild-caught African green monkeys, or vervets (Chlorocebus aethiops sabaeus), on the Caribbean island of St. Kitts to assess their carriage rate of Klebsiella spp. Forty percent of rectal swabs from captive monkeys were positive for K. pneumoniae, and 20% of wild-caught animals were positive. Two wild-caught monkeys (4%) were positive for K. oxytoca, and one monkey (2%) was found to be infected with a hypermucoid rmpA-positive K. pneumoniae strain. Genotyping of this strain showed that it had an indistinguishable random amplified polymorphic DNA fingerprint to a strain that caused fatal abscessation in several African green monkeys in a research colony in the USA in 2005. This is the first report of hypermucoid K. pneumoniae isolation from a wild population of nonhuman primates and represents a potential health risk to these animals, as well as to the humans who come in contact with them.

Increasing urbanization has important consequences for wildlife, including the potential for higher prevalence of diseases within “urban adapter” species exposed to spillover from domestic animals. We investigated whether prevalence of antibodies to Toxoplasma gondii in woodchucks (Marmota monax) was related to urbanization in a Midwestern landscape. We collected serum samples from adult woodchucks captured across an urban–rural gradient in Illinois, USA in May–November 2007. We used an indirect fluorescent antibody test (IFAT) on the serum samples to detect T. gondii antibodies. Five of 35 (14.3%) sera from woodchucks had detectable T. gondii antibodies. Prevalence was related positively to urbanization. All positive samples were from individuals inhabiting areas in which urban land cover exceeded 70%. Urban woodchucks are likely exposed to high levels of T. gondii oocysts in the environment due to habitat overlap with the definitive hosts for the parasite, domestic and feral cats, which reach high densities in urban areas.

Canada geese (Branta canadensis) are numerous, highly visible, and widely distributed in both migratory and resident populations in North America; as a member of the order Anseriformes, they are often suggested as a potential reservoir and source for avian influenza (AI) viruses. To further examine the role of Canada Geese in the ecology of AI, we re-evaluated existing literature related to AI virus in this species and tested breeding populations of Canada Geese from three states (Georgia, West Virginia, and Minnesota, USA) by virus isolation and serology. The ability of AI virus to persist in goose feces under experimental conditions also was evaluated as an additional measure of the potential for this species to serve as an AI virus reservoir. Virus was not isolated from 1,668 cloacal swabs and type-specific antibody prevalence was low (4/335, 1.2%). Finally, under experimental conditions, AI virus persistence in goose feces and in water contaminated with goose feces was limited as compared to published estimates from duck feces and water. Our results are consistent with historic reports of a low prevalence of AI virus infection in this species, and we suggest that Canada Geese play a minor, if any, role as a reservoir for low pathogenic AI viruses that naturally circulate in wild bird populations.

Lungworm infections are common among bighorn sheep (Ovis canadensis) in North America, and the predominant species reported are Protostrongylus stilesi and P. rushi. The only records of another lungworm species, Muellerius capillaris, infecting bighorns come from South Dakota, USA. At the National Bison Range (NBR), Montana, USA we found that across six sampling periods, 100% of wild bighorn sheep surveyed were passing first-stage dorsal-spined larvae (DSL) which appeared to be consistent with M. capillaris. By contrast, only 39% or fewer sheep were passing Protostrongylus larvae. Using molecular techniques, we positively identified the DSL from the NBR bighorns as M. capillaris. This is the first definitive record of M. capillaris infection in a free-ranging bighorn sheep population outside of South Dakota.

Mycoplasma gallisepticum conjunctivitis emerged in 1994 as a disease of free-ranging House Finches (Carpodacus mexicanus) in North America and has also been isolated from other songbirds with conjunctivitis. A key feature for the successful study of natural and experimental disease has been the apparent, very-high correlation between characteristic eye lesions and M. gallisepticum. Mycoplasma sturni was originally isolated from an adult European Starling (Sturnus vulgaris) with bilateral conjunctivitis and has since been reported in a relatively small number of other avian species, but not in House Finches. We identified as M. sturni a mycoplasma isolate from a California House Finch with conjunctivitis. However, experimental infection of House Finches with the M. sturni isolate failed to reproduce the disease. Therefore, M. gallisepticum remains the primary known cause of conjunctivitis in House Finches.

We report alopecic syndrome (hair loss in areas of the body, including chest, abdomen, and back) in four frugivorous bat species (Artibeus jamaicensis, Artibeus lituratus, Sturnira lilium, and Sturnira ludovici) within urban and periurban areas of Villahermosa, Tabasco, México, during 2007 and 2008. The overall prevalence of alopecic syndrome was 5.25% (135/2,567 bats). The highest prevalence was found in A. lituratus (5.6%; 62/1,105), followed by A. jamaicensis (5%; 3/ 1,462). We found a higher prevalence in the dry season, when more than 90% of the alopecic individuals (n=122) were captured. Higher prevalence of alopecia was recorded in urban areas (80% of captured alopecic bats, n=108) than in periurban areas (20%, n=27). Histopathologic studies revealed no evidence of infectious agents. The syndrome may be related to nutritional or endocrinal deficiencies. Spatial and seasonal aggregation in urban areas suggests that anthropogenic activities may interfere with nutritional processes. Further studies are needed to confirm the etiology of the syndrome as well as its impact on population dynamics. This is the first report of alopecic syndrome in sylvatic bats.

Toxoplasma gondii is one of the most common protozoan parasites of humans and warm-blooded animals. Members of the family Felidae are the only definitive hosts of this parasite and, thus, important in the epidemiology of the disease. Previous studies on Pacific islands have found T. gondii infections in a number of avian species where domestic cats (Felis catus) have been introduced. Little is known about T. gondii in the Galapagos Islands, although introduced domestic cats in the archipelago are known to be T. gondii antibody-positive. In this study, we quantified prevalence of antibody to T. gondii in two threatened avian marine species, Galapagos Penguins (Spheniscus mendiculus) and Flightless Cormorants (Phalacrocorax harrisi), and tested the hypothesis that this parasite is more prevalent on Isabela Island (with cats) than on Fernandina Island (without cats). Overall, antibody prevalence was 2.3% in both Galapagos Penguins and Flightless Cormorants from samples collected during 2003–2005, and in 2008. In Galapagos Penguins (n=298), a significantly higher antibody prevalence was found in penguins on Fernandina Island (free of cats) than on Isabela Island (with cats; Fisher's exact test; P=0.02). In Flightless Cormorants (n=258), there was a higher antibody prevalence in cormorants living on Isabela than on Fernandina, although this difference was not statistically significant (Fisher's; P=0.19). This study is the first to show exposure to T. gondii in endemic avian species in the Galapagos Islands, providing evidence for disease-related risks associated with the feral cat population in the archipelago. We provide possible explanations for these findings and recommendations for future studies towards a better understanding of the epidemiology of T. gondii in the Galapagos Islands.

A case of an ovarian tumor is reported in an 8-yr-old South American sea lion (Otaria flavescens) kept in a marine park in Malta (35.57°N, 14.25°E). The neoplasm was a solid mass of dense sheets and nests of round to polyhedral, irregularly shaped cells with abundant, finely vacuolated cytoplasm. The nuclei were uniformly small and round to oval. The supporting stroma contained thecal cells. The tumor cells were positive for positive inhibin and vimentin and focally positive for cytokeratin by immunohistochemistry. The neoplasm was diagnosed as an ovarian sex cord–stromal tumor, specifically an interstitial cell tumor.

Ehrlichiosis, an emergent tick-borne disease that affects both humans and animals, may represent a threat to the survival and preservation of wild felids in Brazil. There are few studies of ehrlichiosis in wild felids in Brazil, but Ehrlichia spp. are present in domestic cats. Antibodies to Ehrlichia canis have been reported in a puma (Puma concolor). In this study we assessed the presence of these hemoparasites in the blood of Brazilian wild captive felids. Of the 72 animals tested, 5 (7%) were seropositive for the E. canis antigen, and 11 (15%) were positive for E. canis DNA sequences. We also performed sequence alignment to establish the identity of the parasite species infecting these animals using 16S rRNA and omp-1 genes. Sequences based on 16S rRNA were similar to those found in dogs and cats from Thailand, Brazil, China, and Taiwan and with E. canis obtained from a single individual (human) in Venezuela. Ehrlichia sp. sequence from sampled felines based on omp-1 gene was similar to the p28 and p30 multigene family of E. canis. To our knowledge, this is the first study of molecular detection of Ehrlichia sp. in Brazilian wild feline species.

A captive striped skunk (Mephitis mephitis) study was conducted between February and June 2004 at the United States Department of Agriculture, Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, Wildlife Services National Wildlife Research Center, Fort Collins, Colorado, USA. The main objective was to determine the percentage of adult striped skunks that were marked after consuming placebo oral rabies vaccine (ORV) baits containing 100 mg of an experimental microencapsulated (coated microparticle) tetracycline hydrochloride biomarker. Biomarkers were identified in the canine teeth and mandibles of five of five skunks that consumed an ORV bait. A second objective was to determine if the microencapsulated tetracycline was resistant to photochemical conversion from tetracycline to epitetracycline. After 15 days of exposure, conversion from tetracycline to epitetracycline concentration in the microencapsulated product (mean 1.9% conversion, SD=1.24) was significantly less (P=0.006) than the pure-grade tetracycline powder (mean 7.5% conversion, SD=1.37). Results support the use of microencapsulated tetracycline hydrochloride as a biomarker in circumstances where the use of conventional powdered tetracycline hydrochloride is not feasible due to ORV bait design constraints.

Trace mineral imbalances have been suggested as having a causative or contributory role in chronic wasting disease (CWD), a prion disease of several North American cervid species. To begin exploring relationships between tissue mineral concentrations and CWD in natural systems, we measured liver tissue concentrations of copper, manganese, and molybdenum in samples from 447 apparently healthy, adult (≥2 yr old) mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus) culled or vehicle killed from free-ranging populations in north-central Colorado, United States, where CWD occurs naturally; we also measured copper concentrations in brain-stem (medulla oblongata at the obex) tissue from 181 of these deer. Analyses revealed a wide range of concentrations of all three minerals among sampled deer (copper: 5.6–331 ppm in liver, 1.5–31.9 ppm in obex; manganese: 0.1–21.4 ppm in liver; molybdenum: 0.5–4.0 ppm in liver). Bayesian multiple regression analysis revealed a negative association between obex copper (−0.097; 95% credible interval −0.192 to −0.006) and the probability of sampled deer also being infected with CWD, as well as a positive association between liver manganese (0.158; 95% credible interval 0.066 to 0.253) and probability of infection. We could not discern whether the tendencies toward lower brain-stem copper concentrations or higher systemic manganese concentrations in infected deer preceded prion infection or rather were the result of infection and its subsequent effects, although the distribution of trace mineral concentrations in infected deer seemed more suggestive of the latter.

A moribund 5-year-old female northern river otter (Lontra canadensis) was found on the bank of a river known to be extensively contaminated with mercury. It exhibited severe ataxia and scleral injection, made no attempt to flee, and died shortly thereafter of drowning. Tissue mercury levels were among the highest ever reported for a free-living terrestrial mammal: kidney, 353 μg/g; liver, 221 μg/g; muscle, 121 μg/g; brain (three replicates from cerebellum), 142, 151, 151 μg/g (all dry weights); and fur, 183 ug/g (fresh weight). Histopathologic findings including severe, diffuse, chronic glomerulosclerosis and moderate interstitial fibrosis were the presumptive cause of clinical signs and death. This is one of a few reports to document the death of a free-living mammal from presumed mercury poisoning.

Limited information exists on avian influenza (AI) virus infection in South American wild birds. As part of a national surveillance program in Argentina, indigenous waterbirds were screened for antibodies to AI virus. From November 2006 to July 2007, serum samples from 540 waterbirds of 12 species were tested for type-specific antibodies to AI virus with the use of a commercially available blocking enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (bELISA) and the agar-gel immunodiffusion (AGID) test. Thirty-three percent (176/540) of serum samples were positive with the bELISA and 12% (64/540) were positive with the AGID test. The bELISA detected antibodies to AI virus in eight of the 12 species, and the AGID detected positives in only five species. These results provide insight into AI virus circulation in Argentinean waterbirds and preliminary data to guide further surveillance efforts.

Phocid herpesvirus-1 (PhHV-1, subfamily Alphaherpesvirinae) was isolated from harbor seals (Phoca vitulina vitulina) in the Netherlands in 1985, and was subsequently identified in Pacific harbor seals (Phoca vitulina richardsi) from California, USA in the 1990s. PhHV-1–associated pathology was first recognized in harbor seal carcasses submitted to a veterinary diagnostic laboratory in Abbotsford, British Columbia, Canada in 2000, and 63 cases were identified by 2008. A review of these cases indicated that PhHV-1–associated disease is widespread in harbor seals in the wild and within rehabilitation facilities in the coastal northeastern Pacific (including British Columbia, Canada, and Washington, USA). Morbidity and mortality occurred primarily in neonatal and weanling seal pups, and was due to PhHV-1 alone, or in combination with other disease processes. All cases occurred between July and October, corresponding to the pupping and weaning seasons in this area. Although previous publications have described the prevalence of antibody to PhHV-1 in harbor seals from British Columbia, Canada and Washington, USA this is the first study to focus on the epidemiology and pathology of the virus in this region.