The pharmacokinetic profile of selected NSAIDs in southern black rhinoceros (Diceros bicornis minor) were studied. Phenylbutazone (PBZ), meloxicam (MEL), and firocoxib (FIR) were administered orally to five captive, black rhinoceros, and blood was collected at predetermined time points for NSAID quantification and noncompartmental pharmacokinetic (PK) analysis. Phenylbutazone 4.0 mg/kg PO q12h for three doses, MEL 0.3 mg/kg PO q24h administered twice, and a single oral dose of FIR 0.1 mg/kg, were tested with a minimum washout time of 2 wk. PBZ reached a median (range) peak concentration (C_max) of 9.42 (2.74–11.5) g/ml at a mean (range) time (T_max) of 6.00 (4.00 to >12.00) h, and the median (range) elimination half-life (T_1/2) was 6.07 (3.95–6.49) h. Phenylbutazone pharmacokinetic parameters for black rhinoceros in this study were similar to domestic horses. Meloxicam reached a median (range) C_max of 0.576 (0.357–0.655) µg/ml at a median (range) time (T_max) of 6.00 (4.00–12.00) h; the median (range) T_1/2 of MEL was 14.0 (12.4–17.9) h. These results demonstrate that once-daily administration of MEL at 0.3 mg/kg resulted in a serum concentration of greater than 0.200 µg/ml from 2 to 24 h in four animals, which is within the analgesic range (0.200–0.400 µg/ml) for this drug in other species postulated by other studies. A single dose of firocoxib (0.1 mg/kg) reached a median (range) peak concentration (C_max) of 15.7 (9.65–17.3) ng/ml at a median (range) T_max of 4.00 (4.00–6.00) h. The median (range) elimination T_1/2 of FIR was 4.96 (4.47–6.51) h, which is faster than in the horse. The data suggest that extrapolation from equine FIR dosage recommendations is inappropriate for black rhinoceros.

Chronic kidney disease (CKD) is a prevalent disease among felids; yet its origin is still poorly understood, and the disease often remains asymptomatic for years, underscoring the need for early diagnosis. This study aimed to investigate the diagnostic value of urinalysis in accurately staging CKD, particularly as routine health checks in large felids often overlook its significance. In this research, ultrasound-guided cystocentesis (UGC) was performed on 50 captive nondomestic felids during routine veterinary health checks under general anesthesia. Urinalysis included microscopic examination of the sediment, measurement of urine specific gravity (USG) and protein to creatinine ratio (UPC). Additional serum kidney markers, such as creatinine and symmetric dimethylarginine, were compared with USG and UPC to assess their diagnostic value as urinary biomarkers. The results demonstrated proteinuria (UPC > 0.4) or borderline proteinuria (UPC 0.2–0.4) in 49% of the animals. Among these cases, 62% were of renal origin, and 38% were postrenal causes. USG was significantly higher in felids with borderline proteinuria compared to those with proteinuria. A moderate, but significant negative correlation between serum parameters and USG was observed, emphasizing the importance of assessing both diagnostic parameters during kidney evaluations. Additionally, felids with CKD have an increased risk of urinary tract infections, necessitating microscopic urinalysis and bacterial culture analysis. Abnormalities, including hematuria, pyuria, crystalluria, and bacteriuria, were found in approximately 38% of cases through microscopical examination of urine. No complications associated with UGC were observed and abnormal findings were detected in 60% of the cases. Based on these results, the authors recommend the inclusion of UGC and urinalysis as standard diagnostic tools in general health checks for nondomestic felids. This approach provides valuable insights into the early detection and staging of CKD, supporting early intervention and supportive medical care to prolong renal health in these animals.

Acute phase proteins (APP) and protein electrophoresis (EPH) offer crucial insights into inflammation and overall health in various species. In this study, we validated serum amyloid A (SAA) and C-reactive protein (CRP) reagents for use with serum samples from gibbons (Hylobatidae, n = 50), spanning five species across four gibbon genera: eastern hoolock (Hoolock leuconedys), Javan (Hylobates moloch), pileated (Hylobates pileatus), siamang (Symphalangus syndactylus), and white-cheeked (Nomascus leucogenys). Preliminary reference intervals (n = 50) were calculated for SAA (1.8–48.1 mg/L), CRP (0.1–11.1 mg/L), and EPH via capillary zone electrophoresis, in healthy gibbons. Comparing clinically normal (n = 38) and abnormal (n = 12) individuals, significant differences were observed in the albumin/globulin ratio (P = 0.0003), prealbumin (P = 0.0345), and albumin (P = 0.0094), with abnormal individuals exhibiting statistically significantly higher γ-globulins (P = 0.0224), SAA (P = 0.0001), and CRP (P = 0.0003). Despite significant chromosomal rearrangements among different gibbon species, we found no statistically significant differences of SAA and CRP levels across species. However, some differences between species were observed in EPH fractions. This study presents the first report of the evaluation of APP and EPH in gibbons, underscoring the potential use of these biomarkers in gibbon health monitoring. Further research with larger sample sizes of both normal and abnormal gibbons is recommended to solidify the clinical utility of these biomarkers in these species.

Pronghorn (Antilocapra americana) are considered a keystone species of North American grasslands and an important economic source for many landowners in Texas. Pronghorn restoration projects routinely capture and translocate individuals from surplus populations to restoration areas. The objective of this study was to generate normal hematological and biochemical reference intervals (RI) for free-ranging pronghorn populations in Texas as a health monitoring tool for pronghorn restoration efforts. Blood samples were collected by jugular venipuncture and divided among an EDTA tube, serum separator tube, and a single blood smear on site. Complete blood counts and biochemical profiles were completed at the Texas Veterinary Medical Diagnostic Laboratory. In total, 417 individuals (41 males, 376 females) were included in the analysis. RI were determined by robust methods (R Studio) and mixed models' analysis of variance (SPSS 28) to examine differences in blood parameters due to fever, sex, age (adult versus yearling [<1 yr of age]), cell abnormalities, and pathogen exposure reported by the testing laboratory. Sex, age, and pathogen exposure affected mean blood values, but did not warrant development of separate RI by class. Bluetongue virus was identified in 46.8% (195/417) of pronghorns and epizootic hemorrhagic disease in 89.4% (194/217) of pronghorns; 84.8% (184/217) of the pronghorns tested positive for both diseases. This information provides baseline hematology and biochemical parameters to assess the health of free-ranging pronghorn and guide wildlife managers in decision-making for future translocations and restoration objectives.

Pododermatitis is common in penguins kept under human care. Substrate optimization plays an important role in prevention and treatment; however, there is limited information on biomechanical properties of commonly used substrates on penguin feet. The objectives were to test the ability of different substrates to decrease weight loading on the central metatarsal pad of penguin feet in an ex vivo model using feet with and without bumblefoot harvested from two Magellanic penguin (Spheniscus magellanicus) cadavers. Penguin feet were attached to a digital force gauge mounted onto a stand for compression testing at 2.5 and 5 kg. Forces at the central metatarsal pad were measured in triplicate using small force sensors. Tested substrates included five granular surfaces (sand, wet sand, pea gravel, wet pea gravel, and crushed ice), three compliant surfaces (short-leaf Astroturf, long-leaf Astroturf, and neoprene), and three firm surfaces (tile, rubber drainage mat, and 3M Safety-Walk Wet Area Matting). Data were analyzed using linear mixed models. There were multifaceted effects of applied pressures, substrate surfaces, and pododermatitis on central metatarsal measured pressures. In general, doubling compression forces resulted in higher measured pressures in all firm and compliant surfaces but not in granular surfaces. Firm surfaces were associated with higher recorded plantar pressures at 2.5 kg, but different significance groupings emerged at 5 kg with a high-, medium-, and low-pressure cluster of surfaces. Pododermatitis lesions resulted in significant alterations in statistical significance clustering among substrate surfaces and unique substrate behaviors. The results of this study could help in making recommendations pertaining to foot health for penguin exhibits.

Antemortem serodiagnosis of aspergillosis remains challenging in Sphenisciformes. Protein electrophoresis, serology (antibody, antigen) by ELISA, and gliotoxin detection provide variable diagnostic value. In the present study, a commercially available Western blot (WB) validated for use in humans and dolphins was adapted for use with penguin samples. Using the same method and reagents, samples were analyzed from multiple institutions in the United States and one facility in France. This was inclusive of normal juvenile African penguins (Spheniscus demersus, n = 10) and various species of penguins in the United States with confirmed infection (n = 9) as well as 52 samples from Humboldt penguins (Spheniscus humboldti) in France. Cumulative WB scores (based on reactivity to different antigens) were found to be significantly higher in the group of penguins with confirmed infection (p < 0.0001). Significant differences were also observed between the clinically normal penguins in the two populations, with higher scores in the United States (median score 1.0, 95%CI [0–5], min 0, max 11) compared to France (median score 0,95%CI [0–0], min 0, max 5). The utilization of the WB as a diagnostic tool is inconclusive due to the use of samples from varying institutions, environmental background, age, and stages of infection. However, this tool may provide an overview of antigen reactivity in penguins infected with Aspergillus to help design a more robust serology assay and further understand the humoral immune response during infection.

Determination of acid-base status contributes important information about patient health, including for patients under anesthesia. There is a paucity of information about the determinants of acid-base status of large felids managed under anesthesia, and advancement of such knowledge may contribute to patient safety. This study serially monitored the individual metabolic acid-base status of 11 large felids, including lions (Panthera leo), tigers (Panthera tigris), and cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus), under general anesthesia. We analyzed the contributions of measured strong ions (sodium, chloride, potassium, lactate), weak acids and buffers (albumin, phosphate and bicarbonate), and unmeasured anions to standardized extracellular base excess (SBE). A general linear model assessed for species differences in these parameters, with time since immobilization, SBE, and mean arterial pressure as covariates. By employing a Stewart-based analytical approach, it was possible to separate chloremic and unmeasured anion contributions to metabolic acid base status. This provided a basis for identifying mixed metabolic processes, generating differentials for underlying causes. Using normal acid base parameters for domestic felids, metabolic acidosis was found to be prevalent. Frequent evidence of unmeasured anion accumulation was also found, with unmeasured anions occasionally exceeding 5mmol/L. These findings warrant further inquiry into the drivers and clinical significance of metabolic acidosis and unmeasured anion accumulations in anesthetized large felids, encouraging further anion identity studies to elucidate possible causes. Reference ranges need to be established for acid-base parameters in large felids as a foundation for interpreting more controlled, prospective research into determinants of metabolic acid-base status in these animals under anesthesia.

Cefpodoxime proxetil is commonly used to treat cetacean patients with suspected or confirmed bacterial infections; however, pharmacokinetic data are needed to guide proper dosing in these species. Cefpodoxime proxetil is a time-dependent, semisynthetic, third-generation cephalosporin, appropriate for once-daily dosing and U.S. Food and Drug Administration–approved for use in dogs with a broad spectrum of activity including gram-positive and gram-negative species. The objective of this study was to evaluate the population pharmacokinetics of cefpodoxime in bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus). A sparse-sampling design was used, with serum from dolphins receiving cefpodoxime proxetil at 10 mg/kg orally every 24 h to treat suspected or confirmed bacterial infections. Serum samples (n = 57) from 24 dolphins were analyzed at 12 time points from 0 to 96 h postdose. Serum samples were analyzed using liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry. Population pharmacokinetic analysis was performed using nonlinear mixed-effects modeling. One- and two-compartment linear models with first order absorption were tested. Covariates including weight, age, and sex were considered for inclusion in the model, and between-subject variability was incorporated. A two-compartment model performed best, where following an oral dose of 10 mg/kg, serum concentration reached a mean maximum concentration of 23.0 µg/ml, mean time to maximum concentration of 5.0 h, and mean half-life of 11.4 h. With daily dosing, accumulation was approximately 18% and steady state was reached by the second dose. Serum protein binding was 82.8% as determined by equilibrium dialysis, similar to plasma protein binding reported in dogs. Based on the population pharmacokinetic model, once-daily oral dosing was systemically absorbed and quickly reached maximum concentrations. The half-life in dolphins appears to be longer than other species studied to date. Given the paucity of antimicrobial pharmacokinetic studies in dolphins, and limited once-daily oral antibiotic options for this species, these data are helpful for clinicians to make informed antimicrobial choices.

The Virginia opossum (Didelphis virginiana) is the only marsupial in North America with a natural range north of Mexico. Its range is widespread throughout the United States, including Illinois. Virginia opossums are opportunistic omnivores that will eat a variety of fruits, grains, insects, and even carrion. They are a ground-foraging species, with frequent soil contact allowing for potential exposure to heavy metal contaminants in terrestrial environments. They are also opportunists that thrive in human-altered ecosystems, including peri-urban environments. Lead is a naturally occurring element and highly toxic metal that is abundant in the soil, primarily due to anthropogenic factors such as fossil fuel use, paint, industrial production waste, and battery recycling. Furthermore, carrion and offal piles containing lead bullet fragments remaining from hunting result in environmental contamination of this heavy metal. Few studies exist on lead exposure in the Virginia opossum. This pilot study evaluates the blood lead burden of 16 free-ranging Virginia opossums presented to a wildlife rehabilitation facility, compared with 16 wild-caught Virginia opossums trapped in grassland, maintained forest, or mixed ecotones. In other species, lead toxicosis has been associated with cognitive dysfunction that may increase the likelihood of trauma or injury in a free-ranging setting. In addition, a high incidence of Virginia opossums presenting for wildlife rehabilitation do so as result of human–animal conflict. Therefore, it was anticipated that individuals presenting for wildlife rehabilitation would have significantly higher blood lead concentrations than their free-roaming counterparts. In this study, every Virginia opossum had measurable blood lead concentrations and the average blood lead concentration of the rehabilitated group was 2.7 times higher than that measured in wild-caught Virginia opossums. These results suggest that Virginia opossums are exposed and susceptible to lead toxicosis due to their diet and foraging behaviors, making them more prone to subsequent injury and presentation to wildlife rehabilitation centers.

To date, published comprehensive pathology investigations documented in Steller sea lions (SSL; Eumetopias jubatus) are from free-ranging populations, whereas health data from those under professional care in aquariums are currently lacking. A retrospective review of gross and histopathologic reports of SSL under human care in North American aquariums from 1979 to 2021 (n = 20) was performed. Associations between age, sex, or birth origin (born in aquariums versus the wild) with cause of death (COD) and comorbidities were explored. Age was significantly associated with development of endocrine organ pathology (P = 0.011). A relationship between age and both cardiovascular and ocular disease was suggested by the data, but did not reach significance (P = 0.058). Ocular disease was significantly associated with being born in aquariums (P = 0.022). The most common COD was neoplasia (n = 10), which was significantly associated with aged animals (P = 0.038). Less frequent COD included sepsis (confirmed, n = 2; suspected, n = 3), cardiomyopathy (n = 1), clostridial enteritis (n = 1), Sarcocystis spp. (n = 1), complication secondary to sedation (n = 1), and unknown (n = 1). This is the first report documenting the high prevalence of neoplasia in SSL, with tumors found incidentally in three individuals, frequent metastasis (10/13, 77%), and many cases of multiple primary malignancies (6/13, 46%). These data expand upon the current understanding of disease in SSL, highlight this species' predisposition to neoplasia with increasing longevity, and underscore the need for heightened screening in aged animals, which may ultimately serve to elevate the care of SSL under professional care in aquariums.

Meloxicam, a commonly used NSAID, has wide variation in pharmacokinetics between different avian species. The present study hypothesized that meloxicam dosage regimens were similar within, but differ between, groups of avian species with similar feeding habits, habitats, or migratory behaviors. Utilizing the international Zoological Information Management System (ZIMS), drug usage extracts were compiled for meloxicam across eleven major orders of birds. The orders were selected based on their prevalence in zoological collections, wildlife rehabilitation centers, the pet trade, and production environments. Each species with a record available in drug usage extracts was classified into broad categories of main habitat, diet, and migratory status. Significant patterns associated with habitat, diet, or migratory status were not identified statistically. An inverse relationship was identified statistically between the practitioner mg/kg dose and body weight in kg in birds that weigh approximately 20 kg or greater. This study includes practitioner-reported summary data of current doses used in the veterinary field to treat many different avian species. Adverse effects of meloxicam were recorded in <5% of individuals evaluated at the species level in this study.

The Asiatic lion (Panthera leo persica) is an endangered species with a slowly increasing captive and wild population. Several zoos from within the European Association of Zoos and Aquaria Ex Situ Program reported Asiatic lions with neurological signs such as (progressive) ataxia, and stargazing. The aim of this study was to evaluate the frequency (prevalence and incidence) and etiology of these clinical signs within the captive Asiatic lion population. The medical history of 74 Asiatic lions (36 healthy and 38 affected) was retrieved and reviewed for blood tests (biochemical, hematological, and retinol), diagnostic imaging (MRI and CT scans) and postmortem examinations. The data of the affected lions was compared with those of healthy lions. Between 2002 and 2020, the prevalence of ataxia ranged from 0.6% in 2004 to 13.0% in 2020. The incidence of ataxia was variable per year between 2002 and 2020 and ranged between 0 and 40%. Besides ataxia, stiffness and lameness were the most described signs in this study. Blood results showed lower total protein, ALT and creatinine, and higher phosphate in lions with neurological signs. Moreover, neurologically affected lions showed a significant lower blood retinol than the control lions (0.59–0.81 µmol/L). The most important finding in diagnostic imaging and necropsy included caudal fossa hyperostosis and cerebellar herniation. These abnormalities are similar as found in African lions (Panthera leo) with calvarial hyperostosis syndrome associated with vitamin A deficiency. Leucomyelopathy, syringomyelia (in one case combined with cerebellar herniation) and incidental mineralization of the dura mater were also described. A possible congenital/hereditary component should not be excluded.

Positive blood cultures have been identified in debilitated, stranded, and deceased green turtles (Chelonia mydas), suggestive of septicemia. Interpretation of these results is often difficult because multiple studies have previously identified bacteremia in clinically healthy reptiles. In this study, paired blood cultures and skin cultures obtained after aseptic preparation of the venipuncture site were collected from 50 immature free-ranging green turtles from Port Canaveral, Florida. Blood culture results were compared with health status (apparently healthy versus unhealthy, based on physical examination findings and appropriate body condition), date of collection, presence of external fibropapillomatosis, healed or unhealed injuries, and presence of barnacles. Weight, body condition score, body condition index, morphometric measures, volume of blood collected, and body temperature were compared between blood culture–positive and blood culture–negative turtles. Positive blood cultures were identified in 14% (7 of 50) of all turtles, including 15.6% (5 of 32) of apparently healthy turtles. Vibrio spp., Bacillus megaterium, Cellulomonas sp., and Staphylococcus pasteuri were isolated in blood culture from apparently healthy individuals. There was a significant association (P = 0.048) between positive skin cultures and positive blood cultures, but isolates obtained were consistently different between paired results. There was no significant association (P > 0.05) between blood culture results and health status, evidence of healed or unhealed injuries, external fibropapillomatosis, or presence of barnacles. Based on the results of this study, positive blood cultures suggestive of nonclinical bacteremia may be present in apparently healthy green turtles. The results of this study will aid the attending clinician in interpretation of blood culture results of apparently healthy or presumed septicemic captive and rehabilitating green turtles as part of the conservation and population recovery of this threatened species.

Lameness is an important veterinary and welfare concern for giraffes in human care. To date, there is limited information on the objective weight-bearing characteristics of the foot in giraffes, making evidence-based decisions for foot care and lameness treatment subjective. Eleven young-adult reticulated giraffes (Giraffa camelopardalis reticulata; median age, 3.5 yr [range, 13 mon–13 yr]), with no clinical lameness or visible hoof overgrowth when viewed from standing, voluntarily walked across a commercially available pressure-sensitive walkway. Footfalls were analyzed for force, pressure, surface area, and impulse from each foot. The weight-bearing claw was also determined based on pressure in both the front and hind limbs. The data obtained suggest that the main weight-bearing claw is the lateral claw in both the forelimbs and the hind limbs the majority of the time, but is inconsistent. The forelimbs also had greater values for all biomechanical variables than the hind limbs. The higher force and pressure suggest that giraffe forelimbs are subjected to greater biomechanical stress than the hind limbs. The relative maximum force from front limbs to hind limbs was 59:41. For these clinically sound giraffes, the center of force was consistently located in the interdigital space approximately equidistant from the toe and heel correlating with the center of mass of the limb. Furthermore, foot strikes occurred in a heel-first pattern. A pressure-sensitive walkway was well tolerated by all animals in the study and may be used in future research to help further elucidate factors that contribute to lameness in giraffes.

This retrospective study of neoplasia in prosimians in human care reports histologically diagnosed cases from the archives of a nondomestic species pathology service between 1995 and 2022, primarily submitted from zoological institutions. To date, the only prior retrospective study of neoplasia in prosimians, published in 2009, was conducted with cases from a single institution specializing in prosimian noninvasive research and care. In the present study, a total of 153 neoplasms from 109 individuals were identified in the pathology service archives. The most commonly affected species belonged to the Lemuridae (92/109, 84.4%), particularly ring-tailed lemurs (Lemur catta; 55/109, 50.5%), black-and-white ruffed lemurs (Varecia variegata; 19/109, 17.4%), and red ruffed lemurs (Varecia rubra; 14/109, 12.8%). The digestive (49/153, 32.0%), reproductive (35/153, 22.9%), and integumentary (30/153, 19.6%) systems were most commonly affected. Hepatocellular neoplasia was the most common neoplasm overall (35/153, 22.9%), with a large proportion of hepatocellular carcinoma (23/35, 65.7%), suggesting a possible predisposition to this tumor in prosimians. The findings support aggressive behavior of these tumors in prosimians, and a majority (13/23, 56.5%) of cases had evidence of metastasis at the time of submission. Mammary neoplasia was also common (25/153, 16.3%) and predominantly malignant (18/25, 72.0%), in contrast with previous literature, although metastasis was uncommonly reported. The most common integumentary neoplasms were papillomas (12/30, 40.0%), and one report identified squamous cell carcinoma arising directly from a squamous papilloma. Several tumor types are reported herein for the first time in prosimian species, to the authors' knowledge. A literature review identifying additional cases reported since 2009 is also reported. This study contributes a large number of prosimian neoplasia cases to the existing literature to help determine trends in zoological collections and to inform captive prosimian health management.

Protein electrophoresis (PEP) is an important tool in mammals to characterize specific dysproteinemias and detect acute and chronic inflammatory responses. In reptiles, PEP is the gold standard method for globulin fraction determination and albumin measurement. In this study, preliminary reference intervals were established for serum PEP in 22 clinically healthy adult Roti Island snake-necked turtles (Chelodina mccordi), a critically endangered species, kept in captivity and sampled over two monsoon seasons. The species has a prominent prealbumin fraction and β-globulins were the dominant globulin fraction. Significant differences between females and males were found in prealbumin (P < 0.01), albumin (P = 0.02), α1-globulin (P = 0.05) and γ-globulin (P = 0.01). Gravid females had significantly lower total protein (P < 0.01), prealbumin (P < 0.01), albumin (P < 0.01) and albumin:globulin ratio (P = 0.01). These preliminary reference intervals should aid in clinical investigation in this species as well as further research studies seeking to understand the application of PEP in reptilian species.

Combinations of a low dose of opioid, such as thiafentanil, and a high dose of medetomidine, are increasingly being used for immobilization of African ungulates. Both drugs can have undesirable cardiorespiratory effects. In this study we assessed whether vatinoxan, a peripherally acting alpha₂–adrenergic receptor antagonist, can be used to alleviate some of these effects without affecting the immobilization quality. Eight healthy, female, boma–confined blesbok (Damaliscus pygargus phillipsi), weighing a mean (SDtion) of 56.8 (4.4) kg, were immobilized twice in a randomized cross–over study with a 2–wk washout period using (1) 0.5 mg thiafentanil + 1.5 mg medetomidine (TM), (2) TM + vatinoxan: 0.5 mg thiafentanil + 1.5 mg medetomidine + 15 mg vatinoxan per milligram medetomidine (total of 22.5 mg, administered intramuscularly at 10 min post recumbency). Heart rate, respiratory rate, rectal temperature, oxygen saturation (SpO₂), arterial blood pressure, and sedation scores from 1 to 5 (1 = limited effect; 5 = excessively deep) were measured every 5 min. Arterial blood gases (PaO₂ and PaCO₂) were measured at 10, 15, 25, and 35 min postrecumbency and the alveolar––arterial oxygen gradient (P[A–a]O₂) was calculated. Induction times and immobilization quality did not differ between groups. The heart rate was significantly higher and the mean arterial pressure significantly lower in blesbok after receiving vatinoxan. All animals were hypoxemic and there were no significant differences in the respiratory rates, PaO₂, PaCO₂, SpO₂, or P(A–a)O₂ gradients at any time point. Although vatinoxan did not improve respiratory variables and blood oxygenation in these animals, the change in cardiovascular variables may suggest that it improves tissue perfusion, a positive outcome that requires further investigation.

The lesser kestrel (Falco naumanni) is a small falcon with a Euro-Central and Asian-Mediterranean range wintering in sub-Saharan Africa. In the second half of the 20th century, the European population experienced a steep decline and was classified as at risk; thus, its biological and ecological aspects have been widely investigated. Nonetheless, data on hematology and plasma chemistry are not yet available. Therefore, hematology and biochemistry parameters were investigated in a sampling population of clinically healthy lesser kestrels (21 female and 10 male adults) from an Italian rescue center during breeding season, estimating the 95% (2.5 – 97.5th percentile) reference intervals (RI) for standard tests based on either parametric or robust statistical methods. The effect of sex on the referenced parameters was also tested and showed no statically significant differences. The established 95% RI highlighted values comparable with those of other similar raptors such as American kestrel (Falco sparverius) and peregrine falcon (Falco peregrinus). As the first recorded hematology and serum chemistry RI, these clinical data could support conservation efforts and clarify the effects of various environmental and ecological factors on the clinical and health status of lesser kestrels, although they should be reinforced with further data from healthy wild animals.

Between the years 2022 and 2023, 62 red kite (Milvus milvus) nestlings were translocated from England to Spain to bolster declining populations in mainland Europe as part of a wider conservation initiative. Health examinations were undertaken by veterinarians ahead of translocation, including examination of hematology and biochemistry parameters from blood samples. This study aimed to establish reference values for these parameters in nestling red kites for use in future translocations or for other clinical purposes. All individuals included in the analysis were clinically healthy at the time of sampling. Biochemical reference intervals were comparable to published values for other Accipitridae, although differences in hematology were noted: PCV was generally lower; and WBC counts higher than (up to triple) those reported for related species of a similar age. It is hypothesized that these differences reflect species variations or the effects of the stress of recent capture on the immune system of the red kites. A Leucocytozoon species was identified on blood smears of six of the red kites. The reference intervals presented in this study are representative of free-living red kite nestlings in England that have recently been captured for conservation translocation purposes.

Uric acid (UA) is excreted as an end product of protein metabolism in many reptiles, including some chelonians. Elevated plasma UA concentrations can occur due to many physiologic and pathologic changes, and determining plasma UA concentrations is part of a complete general health assessment in this taxon. UA concentrations are typically measured using benchtop chemistry analyzers, but point-of-care (POC) UA meters have also been developed for human use. However, these POC UA meters have not been investigated for use in any reptile species. The purpose of this study was to assess agreement between UA measurements produced by a standard benchtop chemistry analyzer and a POC UA meter in free-living eastern box turtles (Terrapene carolina carolina). UA concentrations were measured with a POC meter using fresh whole blood and frozen-thawed plasma and with a standard benchtop chemistry analyzer using frozen-thawed plasma. Poor-to-moderate agreement was present between each of the three methods as evidenced by mixed models, Passing–Bablok regression, Bland–Altman plots, and Cohen's κ. Differences between methods fell outside of clinically acceptable limits, indicating that the POC UA meter should not be used in eastern box turtles.

Twenty lesser chevrotains (Tragulus sp.), 10 males and 10 females, were anesthetized with a combination of butorphanol–midazolam–medetomidine (BMidM), to assess the efficacy of this protocol for short procedures in this genus. The animals received BMidM (0.32, 0.06, 0.15 mg/kg, respectively) intramuscularly via hand injection. Physiological variables were recorded once the animals reached a working depth of anesthesia that lasted 30 min (range 12–60 min). At the end of the procedure, medetomidine and butorphanol were antagonized with atipamezole (0.75 mg/kg) and naltrexone (0.3 mg/kg) intramuscularly, respectively. Induction and recovery were 9.4 ± 4.0 min and 10.2 ± 4.1 min, respectively. Supplementation with isoflurane via face mask was required in five animals to reach light anesthesia. Times to reach the various stages of anesthesia were compared between sexes. There was no difference between males and females reaching the different stages of anesthesia, except for the time required to reach the ambulatory stage, in which females took a significantly longer time (11.8 min vs 7.8 min for the males) to stand after the injection of the antagonists (P = 0.02). Heart rate, respiratory rate, rectal temperature, and peripheral hemoglobin oxygen saturation were similar between sexes and stable throughout the procedure. At the dosage tested BMidM was a reliable and safe protocol for short, minimally invasive procedures in lesser chevrotains with a fast induction and smooth recovery without complications.

The North American (NA) porcupine (Erethizon dorsatum) is a rodent species with specialized hair structures called quills designed to detach and penetrate into tissues of any human or animal coming into contact with them. The objective of this study was to characterize the fungal flora of the quills in the region of the rosette in wild NA porcupines to further define health risks to NA porcupines and any animal coming into contact with the quills. A total of 17 adult NA porcupines were sampled, and fungal culture was performed. Fungal organisms were cultured from 15 (88.2%) of 17 samples. Thirty-three isolates of 10 different fungal genera were cultured. The most frequently isolated fungi were Lodderomyces elongisporus (n = 7, 41.2%), Candida spp. (n = 3, 17.6%), and Penicillium spp. (n = 2, 11.8%). Eleven (64.7%) individuals grew multiple fungal organisms. In humans and animals quilled by porcupines, fungal culture should be considered in cases of infection, and if isolates resembling Candida spp. are isolated, matrix-assisted laser desorption–ionization time of flight or molecular methods are necessary to rule out L. elongisporus.

Freshwater turtles face numerous anthropogenic threats worldwide. Health assessments are a key component of chelonian population assessment and monitoring but are under reported in many species. The purpose of this study was to characterize the health of spotted turtles (Clemmys guttata; n = 30) and painted turtles (Chrysemys picta; n = 24) at Camp Edwards, a military base in Cape Cod, Massachusetts, using physical examinations, hematology, plasma heavy metal analyses, and pathogen surveillance via PCR. Spotted turtles had a high prevalence of carapace (n = 27, 90%) and plastron (n = 14, 46.7%) lesions, and a previously undescribed adenovirus was detected in three animals (proposed as Clemmys adenovirus-1). Female painted turtles had lower plasma copper (p = 0.012) and higher strontium (p = 0.0003) than males, and appeared to be in a similar plane of health to previous reports. This initial health assessment effort provides useful baseline data for future comparison in these species. Conservation efforts on Camp Edwards should incorporate continued health surveillance of these populations to identify intervention opportunities and determine the conservation threats, if any, of the novel adenovirus.

Outbreaks of suspected tick-borne disease (redwater fever) have been reported in captive deer of the Scottish Highlands. In this pilot study, polymerase chain reaction and amplicon sequencing were used to detect tick-borne pathogens in opportunistically collected blood and spleen samples from 63 (healthy, n = 44; diseased, n = 19) cervids, and 45 questing and feeding ticks (Ixodes ricinus) from the outbreak sites in 2021–2022. Potentially pathogenic Babesia species were detected in deer but not identified in ticks, Anaplasma phagocytophilum was detected in both deer and ticks, and Borrelia afzelii was detected in ticks but not in deer. Sequencing confirmed Babesia capreoli and Babesia cf. odocoilei parasitemia in clinically healthy red deer (Cervus elaphus), B. capreoli parasitemia in clinically healthy domestic reindeer (Rangifer tarandus tarandus), and two cases of B. cf. odocoilei–associated hemolytic anemia in white-lipped deer (Cervus albirostris), of which one was fatal despite imidocarb treatment. White-lipped deer appear to be highly susceptible to babesiosis caused by B. cf. odocoilei. This investigation highlights the importance of disease surveillance, including molecular diagnostics, for the detection of emerging tick-borne pathogens in managed populations of cervids.

Administration of butorphanol, azaperone, and medetomidine (BAM) for immobilization of black howler monkeys (Alouatta pigra) has not been previously reported. In this observational study, 0.02 ml/kg of compounded BAM (butorphanol 27.3 mg/ml, azaperone 9.1 mg/ml, medetomidine 10.9 mg/ml) was administered IM in 10 captive black howler monkeys. Time to immobilization was recorded, an arterial blood gas performed, and at 5-min intervals, HR, RR, oscillometric arterial blood pressure, SPO_2, and rectal temperature were measured. Naltrexone and atipamezole were administered IM at procedure completion and recovery times were recorded. If invasive procedures such as surgery were necessary and additional drugs needed, further data from that individual was removed from data analysis. Final BAM dosages were 0.55 ± 0.12 mg/kg butorphanol, 0.19 ± 0.04 mg/kg azaperone, and 0.22 ± 0.05 mg/kg medetomidine. Nine of 10 monkeys achieved sedation allowing for physical exam, venipuncture, and tuberculin skin testing within 4 ± 2 min. No monkeys reached a plane of immobilization allowing for intubation. Physiologic variables were acceptable for this species. Hypoxemia (SPO₂ < 95%) was observed in three monkeys via pulse oximetry, and normoxemia was observed on arterial blood gas. Recovery was smooth and rapid. Therefore, BAM is a viable option for noninvasive procedures or as a premedication prior to induction of anesthesia in black howler monkeys.

Leopard sharks (Triakis semifasciata) are temperate, Eastern Pacific elasmobranchs popular in public aquariums. Blood analysis is commonly used for assessing animal health, yet reference values have not been established for this species. This study analyzed T. semifasciata population data to characterize blood reference values for a collection of T. semifasciata housed at a public aquarium. Twenty-one captive leopard sharks were sampled. Blood was collected during annual health examinations from sedated animals. After collection, blood samples were anticoagulated with lithium heparin, and hematocrit and plasma biochemistry values were analyzed. The minimum–maximum ranges were hematocrit 11–31%, buffy coat 1–2%, glucose 4.94–9.38 mM/L, sodium 244–272 mM/L, potassium 3.7–5.5 mM/L, chloride 214–246 mM/L, aspartate aminotransferase 5–31 U/L, creatine kinase 36–1,136 U/L, calcium 3.65–3.95 mM/L, phosphorus 1.13–2.23 mM/L, total protein 21–38 g/L, and total CO₂ 12–18 mM/L. The values identified will contribute to a better understanding of captive leopard shark physiology and to improved veterinary care for captive leopard sharks. Further research can examine the validity of machines like the Vetscan VS2, which will expand the resources available to care professionals.

Orangutan respiratory disease syndrome (ORDS) is a disease unique to orangutans (Pongo sp), characterized by chronic bacterial infection and inflammation of any region or combination of regions of the respiratory tract, including the sinuses, air sacs, cranial bones, airways, and lung parenchyma. Aggressive early intervention during a first episode may prevent progression to chronic disease. However, in the setting of an established chronic disease, intermittent acute exacerbations are associated with worsening symptoms and increased infection and inflammation. ORDS is ultimately fatal due to loss of respiratory function resulting from chronic structural damage. Utilizing potentially lifelong medications to slow the progression of chronic, destructive inflammation in the respiratory tract, chronic treatment is aimed at stabilizing the animals' respiratory function, decreasing the frequency of recurrent exacerbations, and improving their general well-being. Three adult male Bornean orangutans (Pongo pygmaeus) housed at an orangutan rehabilitation and reintroduction center in Indonesia have long histories of recurrent respiratory disease. Each underwent CT scans confirming ORDS with chronic airway disease prior to initiation of a long-term treatment protocol. Based on data-driven medical management of bronchiectasis in humans, the three orangutans have been treated with long-term combination regimens of oral azithromycin, nebulized salbutamol, and nebulized hypertonic saline. Follow-up CT scans in all three animals at least 1 yr following treatment initiation showed improvements throughout their respiratory tracts. The duration of each exacerbation period decreased, and the orangutans have longer symptom-free periods compared to before the start of treatment. At an average of 5 yr into the long-term treatment protocol, all three orangutans are thriving. Chronic medical management of ORDS modeled after human treatment of bronchiectasis has been efficacious in these three orangutans and encourages further study of this approach.

Osteoarthritis and degenerative joint disease affect many species of nondomestic felid and negatively impact quality of life in managed care settings. Previously, pain management options were limited because of the frequency of comorbidities such as renal disease and common difficulty encountered in medication administration. Solensia^TM (frunevetmab) is a felinized monoclonal antibody that binds to nerve growth factor in arthritic joints, thereby inhibiting pain response cascades, and produces marked improvement in clinical signs and quality of life in domestic cats diagnosed with osteoarthritis. Protein sequence analysis was performed to inform the application of frunevetmab in four individuals from three nondomestic felid species (Panthera tigris, Lynx rufus, and Panthera uncia) diagnosed with degenerative joint disease to predict safety, contraindications, and likely response to treatment. Patients were then treated utilizing doses extrapolated from domestic cats and following manufacturer guidelines for administration, and clinical response was evaluated over a minimum 2-mon period. Significant improvement was noted in clinical signs in all four animals, resulting in marked improvement in mobility, lameness, activity level, demeanor, and overall quality of life. Frunevetmab presents an excellent adjunctive therapeutic alternative for nondomestic felids suffering from degenerative joint disease and may complement or decrease the need for other conventional therapeutic regimens.

Congenital abnormalities in tigers (Panthera tigris) are infrequently reported but have included ectrodactyly, cataracts, and vestibular disease. Primary hepatic disease has been documented in multiple nondomestic felid species but is considered uncommon in tigers. To the authors' knowledge, there are no previous reports of congenital abnormalities of the liver in tigers. In May 2022, two male Amur tiger cubs (Panthera tigris altaica) were born at a zoological institution via cesarean section to address dystocia, following the natural birth of a female cub. Between two and six months of age, all three cubs developed progressive lethargy, inappetence, and neurological signs consistent with hepatic encephalopathy, including obtundation and ataxia. In all three cases, serum biochemical values revealed progressive, marked elevations in hepatic enzyme levels with reduction in hepatic synthetic products (albumin, urea, cholesterol). Computed tomographic imaging showed a large cluster of aberrant tortuous vessels craniomedial to the left kidney in all three tigers, consistent with acquired extrahepatic portosystemic shunts. Histologic examination of the livers identified biliary ductal plate malformations. This report details the presentation, clinical findings, diagnoses, and therapeutic interventions attempted in three Amur tiger cubs with biliary ductal plate malformation and subsequent portal hypertension with multiple acquired portosystemic shunts, an unusual abnormality not previously reported in non-domestic felids.

Neoplasia in the Gila monster (Heloderma suspectum) is not commonly investigated, and literature regarding the prevalence and type of neoplasms that affect this species is sparse. Gastrointestinal tract adenocarcinoma (GTA) in particular has only been reported twice in Gila monsters, once in the small intestine and once in the colon. In this case series, 50% (7/14) of the Gila monsters presented to the pathology service at Smithsonian's National Zoo and Conservation Biology Institute (SNZCBI) over the span of 26 yr (1997–2023) were found to have intestinal and/or colonic adenocarcinoma. The frequency of GTA reported in this collection likely represents a multifactorial etiology including geriatric age of specimens, chronic inflammation, gastrointestinal tract infection, and/or increased cognizance of the disease because of previous reports within the collection. An increased awareness of GTA in this species may lead to improved recognition of the disease.

Pneumocoelom secondary to primary pulmonary disease was diagnosed via CT (three cases) or radiographs and coelioscopy (one case) in one Kemp's ridley (Lepidochelys kempii) and three loggerhead (Caretta caretta) sea turtles. All cases were suspected to be caused by trauma to the lung, and all exhibited positive buoyancy disorders. Coelomocentesis alone was ineffective at resolving each pneumocoelom, suggesting a large and persistent tear in the pulmonary parenchyma. An autologous (in three cases) or allogenic (in one case) blood patch pleurodesis was performed. The pneumocoelom was resolved in all four cases with no noted postoperative complications. Follow-up diagnostic imaging confirmed resolution of the pneumocoelom in three cases, and all four patients were successfully rehabilitated and had normal buoyancy at the time of release. One rehabilitated loggerhead was satellite tagged, and the tracking data demonstrated that the animal was still alive and moving normally 126 d postrelease, when the tag stopped transmitting. In sea turtles, an autologous or allogenic blood patch pleurodesis can be safely performed in cases of persistent pneumocoelom secondary to traumatic primary pulmonary disease.

Few cases of antemortem ovarian torsion and diagnosis have been described in reptiles. This case series reports clinical and ultrasound findings in five adult (aged 1–6 yr) female geckos (three leopard geckos [Eublepharis macularius], one crested gecko [Correlophus ciliatus], and one gargoyle gecko [Rhacodactylus auriculatus]) diagnosed with unilateral ovarian torsion between 2019 and 2023. All animals presented with acute weakness associated with coelomic distension, and one suffered from chronic diarrhea and cachexia. Coelomic ultrasound examination (12-MHz linear probe) revealed signs of bilateral follicular stasis and oophoritis in all cases (heterogenic follicles ≤1.3 cm diameter) associated with a large anechoic periovarian rim and a hyperechoic chord, consistent with twisted ovarian vessels. Blood supply to ovarian structures was not detected using a Doppler flow, and a unilateral ovarian torsion was diagnosed in all geckos. A bilateral ovariectomy was performed under general anesthesia in all five animals. The mass of the excised ovaries varied between 7 to 15 g (12.7–22.2% of body weight). One gecko died 1 d postsurgery; the four remaining animals were healthy 6 mon postsurgery. Gekkonids are unique among reptiles in that they undergo a monoautochronic ovulation (only one follicle is recruited by each ovary during each ovarian cycle); the presence of multiple vitellogenic follicles on each ovary facilitates the diagnosis of follicular stasis. This condition was present in all five geckos and was suspected to have led to ovarian torsion. This case series emphasizes the value of ultrasound examination for antemortem diagnosis of reproductive disorders in reptiles.

Wolves are commonly housed in zoological institutions and captive breeding facilities that are essential for maintaining genetic diversity and for the recovery of declining populations. Neoplasia is a common cause of mortality in wolves, but hemangiosarcoma has not previously been described. This condition was diagnosed in four red wolves (Canis rufus) and two gray wolves (Canis lupus) housed at five different institutions between 2008 and 2018. Animals were 11–16 yr of age at the time of presentation. Clinical signs included loss of body condition, abdominal distension, lethargy, weakness, ataxia, and hyporexia. Three animals were mildly anemic. All animals were humanely euthanized within an average of 3 d from onset of clinical signs. Two animals had primary splenic tumors, two had pelvic tumors with one originating from the aorta, and one had a cranial mediastinal mass. Diagnosis was made on postmortem histologic examination in all cases. Four wolves had evidence of metastases with foci in the lungs, lymph nodes, mesentery, liver, subcutis/skeletal muscle, kidney, adrenal, and thyroid gland. Hemangiosarcoma should be considered in geriatric wolves presenting with nonspecific signs, particularly if abdominal distension, free peritoneal fluid, or anemia is present.

Nile tilapia fish skin (Oreochromis niloticus) has been increasingly used in human and veterinary medicine in xenografts for treatment of burn wounds. The objective of this study was to self-prepare the graft using a Brazilian patent (WO2017/035615 A1) as a guide and apply it to full-thickness wounds in zoological species (n = 4). The wounds, which were all characterized as contaminated wounds in which the entire dermal layer was missing, had all previously been surgically debrided and treated with traditional wound-healing techniques without success. This graft technique was developed in response to the poor treatment success. The graft was prepared and sutured to the affected area, leading to complete contraction and epithelialization in all cases. The patients were concurrently placed on one course of systemic antibiotics because of the severity of wound contamination. The frequency of dressing changes varied between species and no adverse effects were apparent. This method of processing Nile tilapia fish skin proves promising for use in contaminated wounds, as it is inexpensive and easy to acquire and develop, mitigates stress in wildlife patients because of a decreased frequency of dressing changes and therefore handling, and can be utilized in clinical environments.

Gastric and intestinal mucosal hyperplasia and polyps are identified as a cause of morbidity and mortality in moray eels. This report describes the clinical presentations, diagnostic procedures, and therapeutic interventions in eight moray eels diagnosed with gastric polypoid hyperplasia. All described cases were humanely euthanized or found deceased, and multifocal adenomatous hyperplasia and polyps extending from the gastric mucosal epithelium were identified in all cases. The moray eels diagnosed with adenomatous hyperplasia and polyps often exhibited anorexia, regurgitation, and occasional changes in buoyancy, and supportive care was unsuccessful in alleviating or resolving these signs.

A 27-yr-old female pygmy hippopotamus (Choeropsis liberiensis) had two consecutive stillbirths with no overt signs of labor, suggestive of uterine inertia. After a third pregnancy was confirmed, an induction protocol was developed. Cloprostenol and betamethasone were administered on d 200 of gestation (time 0 h). Additional doses of cloprostenol were administered at 24 and 48 h and oxytocin at 30, 31, and 48 h. Each injection resulted in preparturient behavior without overt evidence of contractions. Fetal membranes presented at the vulva at 54.5 h after initial cloprostenol and betamethasone administration with no progression of labor. Transvaginal palpation and manual delivery of a live calf followed. Despite confirmed nursing, the serum glutaraldehyde coagulation test was negative. Failure of passive transfer may have been secondary to the induction protocol. The calf was treated with broad-spectrum antimicrobial agents due to diarrhea, and clinical signs resolved. This clinical brief details the first known induction of parturition in a pygmy hippopotamus, which can serve as the basis for further development of the technique.